<section><p>Cable assemblies and wire harnesses are integral to electronics manufacturing, especially in PCBA box builds. Both are necessary for connecting and integrating components and systems. However, cable assemblies and wire harnesses serve distinct purposes that must be understood for good PCBA design.</p><p>A wire harness is essentially an organized grouping of wires or cables, either encased in a cost-effective, lightweight protective sheath or simply bound together with cable ties. Its primary role is organizational, consolidating multiple electrical wires into one unit for space efficiency and secure, neat routing.</p><p>In contrast, cable assemblies are bundled wires or cables protected by a robust outer layer, and act as transmission lines for signals or power between different parts of a system or between systems.<br><a href="https://www.macrofab.com/box-build-assembly/" target="_blank">A PCBA box build</a>, also known as systems integration, refers to the assembly of a complete electronic product. Within this process, the careful integration of cable assemblies and wire harnesses is essential for ensuring dependable connections, protecting against environmental factors, and transmitting signals accurately. This article will focus on these components and compare their roles in modern electronic assembly.</p><h2><br></h2><h3>What is a Wire Harness?</h3><p>At a high level, a wire harness assembly is a collection of wires or cables designed to transmit signals or electrical current. It is a method of organizing and routing wires within complex electronic systems.</p><p>As part of this bundled group, certain wires or cables may branch from the main group at certain points. This branching allows the wire to connect to a particular component or terminal within the system. These branching points are referred to as “active breakouts” or ends.</p><p>Additionally, for protection, this entire group of bundled wires, including the branch-out points, is often encased in a lightweight protective sheath.</p><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzE1NzgyNDg0MTA0LTE3MTU3ODI0ODQxMDQucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" alt="Img1" class="fr-fic fr-dii"><h3>Basic Components of a Wire Harness</h3><p>A wire harness is primarily made up of three essential parts: the wires, connectors, and housing or protection.</p><h3>Wires and cables</h3><p>A wire is a flexible conductor, which may or may not be insulated, used as a common pathway to transmit electrical signals or power from one point to another. Cables, on the other hand, begin with two or more wires bundled together Cables are more flexible than wires due to their multiple wires, and can transfer higher amounts of electricity.</p><p>When shopping for wires and cables for your wire harness design, familiarity with industry-specific jargon is crucial. Below are some key terms associated with wires and cables:</p><ul><li><strong>Wire Diameter:</strong> Refers to the overall thickness of a wire. It’s the sum of the conductor’s actual diameter and the insulation’s thickness.</li><li><strong>American Wire Gauge (AWG):</strong> A standardized system used predominantly in the United States to denote wire or cable thickness.</li><li><strong>Standard Wire Gauge (SWG):</strong> This is the British counterpart to AWG.</li><li><strong>Braid:</strong> A structure created by weaving together thin metallic strands, often copper. This woven pattern serves as a conductor and is known for its strength and durability, making it apt for demanding applications.</li></ul><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzE1NzgyNDg1NDEzLTE3MTU3ODI0ODU0MTMucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" alt="Img2" class="fr-fic fr-dii"><h3>Connectors</h3><p>Connectors, as the name suggests, facilitate the connection of these wires to other components or systems, ensuring a seamless flow of electricity. They come in two primary types: <strong>plugs and receptacles.</strong> Plugs are the male connectors, meant to be inserted into their female counterparts, the receptacles.</p><p>A connector typically has a front part, where the actual connection between plug and receptacle takes place, and a back part which attaches to the wire or cable, providing a secure and stable connection.</p><p>When dealing with connectors in wire harness assemblies, several terms are commonly used:</p><ul><li><strong>Contacts:</strong> These are the actual conductive parts within the connector, facilitating the electrical connection.</li><li><strong>Cable Ties:</strong> Also known as zip ties or tie wraps, these are fastening devices used to bundle wires and cables together.</li><li><strong>Mating Cycle:</strong> The number of times a connector can be connected and disconnected while still maintaining its functionality.</li><li><strong>Polarization:</strong> Features designed into the connector to prevent wrong-way insertion.</li><li><strong>Strain Relief:</strong> A design feature or component that prevents wires from bending at extreme angles at the connector’s entry point, reducing the risk of wire damage or disconnection.</li><li><strong>Terminal:</strong> The end part of a wire where it makes a connection.</li><li><strong>Ring Terminal:</strong> A type of connector that is shaped like a ring, making it easy to attach to a screw or stud. It’s commonly used for grounding purposes or making connections to busbars and components with stud-style terminals.</li><li><strong>Loose Terminal:</strong> Individual terminal connectors that aren’t pre-inserted into a housing or connector body. They offer flexibility during assembly as they allow for custom connector configurations.</li><li><strong>Assembled Connector:</strong> a connector that has been pre-assembled, meaning it already has terminals inserted into a housing. It speeds up the PCB box build assembly process.</li><li><strong>Bellmouth:</strong> A flared or widened entry of a terminal, making wire insertion easier and reducing the risk of wire damage during insertion.</li><li><strong>Crimp:</strong> A method of joining a terminal to a wire by deforming or “pinching” them together, creating a secure mechanical and electrical connection.</li><li><strong>Double Crimp:</strong> The compression of two or more wire barrels at a single terminal.</li><li><strong>Crimp Height:</strong> Refers to the height or thickness of the terminal after it has been crimped onto the wire. It’s an essential metric to ensure a good quality crimp connection.</li></ul><h3>Protection</h3><p>A wire harness assembly, while facilitating the transmission of signals or power, also exposes its components to various environmental and operational hazards. Among these, corrosion, stress, strain, and electromagnetic interference (EMI) are most prevalent.</p><p>Exposure to moisture and corrosive substances can result in the corrosion of wires and terminals. Such corrosion can introduce high resistance and impedance mismatch, hindering efficient power transfer and potentially causing system breakdowns.</p><p>Furthermore, during the lifecycle of a wire harness, mechanical stress from installation maneuvers or regular operation—like pulling, bending, or twisting—can wear out connectors and cables. This strain is particularly detrimental at the connection points, risking disconnections or wire breaks that interrupt the electrical pathway.</p><p>Additionally, every electrical device releases a certain degree of electromagnetic radiation. This radiation, when it interferes with another device’s operation, is labeled as <a href="https://www.macrofab.com/blog/introduction-to-emc-compliance/" target="_blank">Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)</a>. In essence, EMI prompts wires or cables to inadvertently receive unwanted electrical signals. This unintended reception can disturb the wire’s own signals and jeopardize the performance of sensitive electronic systems.</p><ol><li>Protection of Wires:<ul><li><strong>Insulation:</strong> Most wires are coated with an insulating layer that not only prevents electrical leakage but also provides a first line of defense against environmental hazards like moisture or chemicals.</li><li><strong>Shielding:</strong> Especially for wires susceptible to EMI, a shielding layer, often made of braided copper or a metallic foil, surrounds the wire, preventing external electromagnetic fields from disturbing the signal within.</li><li><strong>Conduits and Sleeves:</strong> In extremely harsh environments, wires are encased in conduits or protective sleeves that provide an added layer of protection against mechanical or environmental damage.</li></ul></li><li>Protection of Joints and Connections<ul><li><strong>Sealed Connectors:</strong> These are designed to keep out moisture, dust, and other contaminants. They play a vital role in preventing corrosion at the connection points.</li><li><strong>Strain Reliefs:</strong> Integrated into connectors, these prevent undue stress on the wire at its joint, reducing the risk of wear and tearor disconnection.</li><li><strong>EMI/RFI Filtering:</strong> For connections especially vulnerable to electromagnetic or radio frequency interference, connectors with built-in filters can be used to block unwanted interference.</li></ul></li></ol><h3>Different Types of Wire Harnesses</h3><p>Wire harnesses vary based on application, environment, and material composition. Here’s a summary table of different types of wire harnesses.</p><h2><p>The Difference Between Cable Assemblies and Wire Harnesses</p></h2><p>While cable assemblies and wire harnesses both organize wires, they have key differences.</p><p>The table below offers a concise comparison of the similarities and differences between a wire harness and a cable assembly:</p><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzE1NzgyNDg1MzY3LTE3MTU3ODI0ODUzNjcucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" alt="Table" class="fr-fic fr-dii"><p>Table</p><h2><br></h2><h3>What is a Cable Assembly</h3><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzE1NzgyNDg1NDc0LTE3MTU3ODI0ODU0NzQucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" alt="Img3" class="fr-fic fr-dii"><p>A cable assembly consists of multiple wires or cables enclosed within a singular protective sheath, typically made from rubber, vinyl, or pressure-extruded<br>thermoplastics such as polyurethane.</p><p>In contrast to wire harnesses, which bundle multiple individually sheathed wires or cables, a cable assembly integrates all its wires into one unified casing. Also, the protection layer used in a cable assembly offers a higher degree of protection compared to the sheathing<br>used in wire harnesses. This makes cable assemblies especially suited for extreme environments requiring enhanced protection.</p><p>Additionally, cable assemblies come equipped with multiple connectors at their active ends, facilitating connections to devices or other cables.</p><h3>Different Types of Cable Assemblies</h3><p>Similar to wire harnesses, cable assemblies are not one-size-fits-all. They are tailored to suit a variety of applications, industries, and environmental conditions. Below are some distinct types:</p><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzE1NzgyNDg1Nzg3LTE3MTU3ODI0ODU3ODcucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" alt="Cable Assembly" class="fr-fic fr-dii"><p>Cable Assembly</p><h2><br></h2><h3>The Difference Between Cable Assemblies and Wire Harnesses</h3><p>While cable assemblies and wire harnesses both organize wires, they have key differences.</p><p>The table below offers a concise comparison of the similarities and differences between a wire harness and a cable assembly:</p><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzE1NzgyNDg2MDg5LTE3MTU3ODI0ODYwODkucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" alt="Similarities and differences" class="fr-fic fr-dii"><h2><br></h2><h3>Applications for Cable Assemblies and Wire Harnesses</h3><p>Cable assemblies and wire harnesses find their way into a multitude of applications, underlining their versatility and crucial role in a wide range of industries:</p><ul><li><strong>Automotive Industry:</strong> Both cable assemblies and wire harnesses can be found in everything from the basic wiring systems that control lights and indicators to the more complex setups in modern vehicles, facilitating multimedia systems, navigation, and advanced driver assistance systems.</li><li><strong>Agricultural Industry:</strong> The modern agricultural sector heavily relies on machinery and equipment. Cable assemblies ensure these machines can withstand outdoor elements, while wire harnesses ensure that the internal electronics of these machines function seamlessly.</li><li><strong>Industrial and Manufacturing:</strong> In factories and production lines, wire harnesses and cable assemblies provide structured wiring setups that make maintenance easy.</li><li><strong>Military:</strong> Reliability is paramount. Both components ensure communication devices and navigation systems function consistently, even under extreme conditions.</li></ul><p>In every mentioned sector, product success is deeply tied to the excellence and dependability of its PCBA box build. Central to this are wire harnesses and cable assemblies. They guarantee organized connections that withstand environmental challenges, and enhance overall functionality.</p><p>Therefore, correctly integrating these components in the box build process leads to long-lasting products, contented customers, and the ensuing sustainability and expansion of a business.</p><h3>Conclusion</h3><p>You might often hear cable assemblies and wire harnesses used interchangeably, but they fulfill distinct roles in electrical systems. Cable assemblies provide strong external protection and connectivity, while wire harnesses focus on optimizing internal organization and saving space.</p><p>Choosing the right cable assembly and wire harness can be challenging. If you work in the hardware tech industry, it’s imperative to understand these differences. When completing your box build, make sure to choose a company who can help you make the right decisions.</p></section><p><a href="https://www.macrofab.com/box-build-assembly/" target="_blank">LEARN ABOUT MACROFAB’S BOX BUILD CAPABILITIES</a></p><hr><section><h5 id="isPasted">About MacroFab</h5><p>MacroFab offers comprehensive manufacturing solutions, from your smallest prototyping orders to your largest production needs. Our factory network locations are strategically located across North America, ensuring that we have the flexibility to provide capacity when and where you need it most.</p><p>Experience the future of EMS manufacturing with our state-of-the-art technology platform and cutting-edge digital supply chain solutions. At MacroFab, we ensure that your electronics are produced faster, more efficiently, and with fewer logistic problems than ever before.</p><p>Take advantage of AI-enabled sourcing opportunities and employ expert teams who are connected through a user-friendly technology platform. Discover how streamlined electronics manufacturing can benefit your business by contacting us today.</p></section><p><br></p>

Cable assemblies and wire harnesses serve distinct purposes that must be understood for a good PCBA box build.

Cable Assemblies vs Wire Harnesses: Their Role in PCBA Box Builds

A guide that elaborates the types and applications of electrical testing, evolution of testing methods, technological advancements and the challenges associated with electrical testing with the growing industrial demands.

Electrical Testing: Comprehensive Guide for Engineering Professionals

Diagram of an open circuit with circuit components

This guide offers an in-depth overview of different types of electric circuits, exploring their foundational concepts, common circuit layouts, specialized circuits, the latest technological advances, and their applications in real-life scenarios.

Types of Circuits: A Comprehensive Guide for Engineering Professionals

<h1 dir="ltr" id="isPasted">Introduction</h1><p dir="ltr">In an era where rapid technological advancements continuously reshape how industries operate, edge artificial intelligence (AI) has emerged as a critical driver of innovation and efficiency. Edge AI brings computation and data storage closer to the locations where it's needed, accelerating response times while reducing bandwidth use. This technology is particularly transformative in industrial and commercial applications, where real-time data processing can significantly enhance operational efficiency and decision-making.</p><p dir="ltr">Enter NVIDIA Train Adapt Optimize (TAO) toolkit—an open-source suite designed to simplify and accelerate the creation of high-quality, customized, and enterprise-ready AI models. This toolkit democratizes access to state-of-the-art AI capabilities and streamlines the development process, enabling rapid deployment across a range of devices from cloud infrastructures to edge units.&nbsp;</p><p dir="ltr">When integrated with Edge Impulse, a leading development platform for edge AI, NVIDIA TAO becomes part of a powerful ecosystem that enhances the capabilities of developers and engineers to bring AI models to production faster. NVIDIA TAO and Edge Impulse represent a formidable combination, poised to accelerate the adoption of edge AI technologies across various sectors by offering tools that reduce complexity and enhance productivity.</p><p dir="ltr">This article explores how the NVIDIA TAO toolkit, along with Edge Impulse, facilitates the development and deployment of AI models on edge devices, illustrating the tangible benefits and real-world applications of this integration. By harnessing these advanced tools, developers can speed up the AI development lifecycle and achieve greater scalability in their AI projects.</p><p dir="ltr"><span contenteditable="false" draggable="true" class="fr-video fr-deletable fr-fvc fr-dvb fr-draggable"><iframe width="540" height="600" src="https://c8056756.sibforms.com/serve/MUIFAMyA6BGksOUPEokHuBnEmZRHhYgJ4RXb4BV0gvzN98ymNIvQdTcBFQnRVfviT6yZSFW_R2g1hENBu7p7Afnyv9Kt0unAAbfFU5mMQhBwI-8hQnKf2r1mmRKhUgDLmtk8bpVSZ7kZGpleCPqtYRv8_kkvODL7F4neGLNGgdpFDm9pPzoYpwbQkc0BU5GVOFoq8CSmD0DDvDjG" frameborder="0" scrolling="auto" allowfullscreen="" style="display: block;margin-left: auto;margin-right: auto;max-width: 100%;" class="fr-draggable" data-lf-form-tracking-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-yt-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-vimeo-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true"></iframe></span><br></p><h2 dir="ltr">The NVIDIA TAO Toolkit</h2><p dir="ltr">NVIDIA TAO Toolkit is a great tool for developers aiming to harness the power of AI without the complexity typically associated with such endeavors. As an open-source solution, it democratizes advanced technology, allowing a broad range of developers—from startups to large enterprises—to create customized, high-performance AI models that are both scalable and adaptable.</p><h3 dir="ltr">Overview of NVIDIA TAO</h3><p dir="ltr">At its core, the NVIDIA TAO Toolkit facilitates AI model development by leveraging NVIDIA's extensive expertise in AI and deep learning. Designed to streamline the process of model training and optimization, NVIDIA TAO empowers developers to build sophisticated AI models without deep specialization in AI technologies. Its open-source nature ensures that it is continually refined by contributions from the global development community, enhancing its capabilities and accessibility.</p><p dir="ltr"><span class="fr-img-caption fr-fic fr-dib" style="width: 790px;"><span class="fr-img-wrap"><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzE1MjMyMTA3NTEyLWltYWdlMi5wbmciLCJlZGl0cyI6eyJyZXNpemUiOnsid2lkdGgiOjk1MCwiZml0IjoiY292ZXIifX19" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib" alt="nvidia-tao-workflow"><span class="fr-inner" spellcheck="false">Fig. 1: Working with Nvidia TAO toolkit. Source:&nbsp;<a href="https://developer.nvidia.com/tao-toolkit-usecases-whitepaper/1-introduction" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Nvidia</a></span></span></span></p><h3 dir="ltr">The Power of Transfer Learning</h3><p dir="ltr">One of the most significant features of the NVIDIA TAO Toolkit is its utilization of transfer learning. This technique revolutionizes how models are built by allowing developers to start with an existing model—pre-trained by NVIDIA or third-party sources on vast and diverse data sets—and customize it to their specific needs with relatively little data. This method drastically reduces the time and resources required for model training and enhances the model’s accuracy and performance from the outset.</p><p dir="ltr">Transfer learning mimics human learning dynamics, where knowledge gained in one context is repurposed for another. For AI development, this means a developer can take a model that recognizes general objects and retrain it to recognize specialized equipment or scenarios specific to their industry. This flexibility opens up a plethora of applications, from enhancing manufacturing processes with visual inspection tools to improving safety protocols through real-time anomaly detection.</p><h2 dir="ltr"><span contenteditable="false" draggable="true" class="fr-video fr-deletable fr-fvc fr-dvb fr-draggable"><iframe width="640" height="360" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/kErfKDZ50To?&amp;ab_channel=NVIDIADeveloper&amp;wmode=opaque&amp;rel=0&amp;enablejsapi=1&amp;origin=https://www.wevolver.com" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="" class="fr-draggable" data-lf-form-tracking-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-yt-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-vimeo-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true"><span class="fr-mk" style="display: none;">&nbsp;</span></iframe></span>Key Features and Benefits of NVIDIA TAO</h2><p dir="ltr">The NVIDIA TAO Toolkit offers a suite of capabilities that streamline the development process for AI models. Here, we explore how its features cater to efficiency, accuracy, customization, and deployment flexibility.</p><h3 dir="ltr">Efficient Model Training</h3><p dir="ltr">The NVIDIA TAO Toolkit simplifies the model training process significantly. Developers can leverage TAO’s AutoML capability, which automates much of the model tuning. This not only speeds up the model development cycle but also makes it more accessible to non-specialists. The AutoML feature efficiently navigates through the complexities of model tuning, allowing developers to focus more on application development rather than the nuances of model configuration.</p><h3 dir="ltr">High Accuracy and Customization</h3><p dir="ltr">NVIDIA is renowned for its high-performance computing and deep learning technologies, and TAO is no exception. It enables the creation of highly accurate AI models tailored to specific needs using state-of-the-art vision transformers and NVIDIA's pre-trained models. These capabilities allow for the development of bespoke AI solutions that are finely tuned to the unique requirements of different use cases, from healthcare diagnostics to automated surveillance systems.</p><h3 dir="ltr">Optimization for Inference and Deployment Flexibility</h3><p dir="ltr">Once a model is trained, ensuring it performs efficiently on the intended hardware is crucial. NVIDIA TAO facilitates this by enabling significant optimizations for inference, enhancing model accuracy and performance across GPUs, CPUs, and cloud servers. Additionally, Edge Impulse extends this adaptability to various deployment platforms, including microcontrollers and various other edge devices, ensuring that models integrate smoothly with existing infrastructures.</p><h3 dir="ltr">AI-Assisted Data Annotations</h3><p dir="ltr">Preparing data for training AI models is often labor-intensive. NVIDIA TAO eases this burden with AI-assisted data annotation capabilities. This feature accelerates the preparation of training data, making it faster and less costly.</p><h2 dir="ltr">Integrating NVIDIA TAO with Edge Impulse</h2><p dir="ltr">The collaboration between NVIDIA TAO and Edge Impulse presents a synergistic approach to edge AI development, significantly reducing time-to-market while increasing the scalability and efficiency of AI solutions. This integration facilitates a streamlined workflow from model creation to deployment, addressing key challenges in edge AI development.</p><h3 dir="ltr">Enhancing Edge AI Development</h3><p dir="ltr">By incorporating NVIDIA TAO into the Edge Impulse development platform, developers gain access to a robust set of tools designed to expedite the creation of efficient models. This integration leverages the strengths of both platforms—TAO’s powerful model training and Edge Impulse’s sophisticated deployment capabilities. Together, they simplify the development cycle, enabling developers to rapidly prototype, iterate, and deploy AI models that are both robust and scalable.</p><h3 dir="ltr">Comprehensive Edge AI Solution</h3><p dir="ltr">The combined power of NVIDIA TAO and Edge Impulse provides a comprehensive solution for edge AI. From collecting data on edge devices to training and validating models and finally optimizing libraries to run efficiently on target hardware, this integration covers all bases. It supports a wide range of devices, from low-power microcontrollers to more capable GPUs, ensuring that developers can deploy their AI solutions across diverse modern IoT and edge computing environments.</p><p dir="ltr">Developers can tailor their solutions to specific hardware and performance needs, optimizing resource usage and operational efficiency. Additionally, the combined ecosystem supports a variety of silicon and sensors, making it an all-in-one solution for edge AI applications.</p><h2 dir="ltr">Practical Applications and Success Stories</h2><p dir="ltr">The integration of NVIDIA TAO with Edge Impulse offers a powerful platform for practical applications in various sectors. Here, we explore some specific use cases that demonstrate the effectiveness of this technology.</p><p dir="ltr">PCB Classification:&nbsp;In electronics manufacturing, ensuring that all components are correctly placed and functional on a PCB is crucial. A minor error can lead to a malfunctioning device, leading to increased costs and reduced consumer trust. The PCBClassification model, developed using NVIDIA TAO, addresses this challenge effectively.<a href="https://catalog.ngc.nvidia.com/orgs/nvidia/teams/tao/models/pcb_classification" target="_blank"><sup>[1]</sup></a></p><p dir="ltr">This model utilizes an advanced AI architecture known as global context vision transformer (GCViT), initially trained on a comprehensive image dataset (NVImageNet). The model's training involves transfer learning, where a model developed for one task is partially retrained to perform another. In this case, the base model, proficient in general image recognition, is fine-tuned to specifically identify missing or defective components in PCB images.</p><p dir="ltr">The process is straightforward yet powerful: images of PCBs are fed into the model, which has been trained to recognize various components like resistors, capacitors, and inductors. The model assesses each component's presence or absence and checks for defects. This automated inspection helps quickly spot errors during the manufacturing process, reducing the likelihood of defective products reaching the market.</p><p dir="ltr">The accuracy of this model is notable, achieving near-perfect precision in tests. This high level of performance is crucial for industries where the cost of errors can be exceptionally high, both financially and in terms of brand reputation.</p><p dir="ltr">Reducing Baggage Delays at Airports:&nbsp;The case of Trifork using NVIDIA TAO for baggage tracking at airports highlights the transformative potential of these technologies in enhancing operational efficiency.<a href="https://resources.nvidia.com/en-us-metropolis-software-success-stories/trifork" target="_blank"><sup>[2]</sup></a> By deploying vision AI solutions, Trifork has been able to track millions of pieces of luggage, significantly reducing baggage delays and lost baggage incidents. This application not only improves the passenger experience but also optimizes the workflow and resource allocation at airports.</p><p dir="ltr">Industrial Defect Detection:&nbsp;Another compelling application is in the field of industrial defect detection.<a href="https://developer.nvidia.com/blog/transforming-industrial-defect-detection-with-nvidia-tao-and-vision-ai-models/" target="_blank"><sup>[3]</sup></a> Using NVIDIA TAO, developers have created models that can identify defects in various industrial products with high precision. This application is particularly beneficial for quality control in manufacturing, where detecting and addressing defects early in the production process can lead to substantial cost savings and maintain high-quality standards.</p><p dir="ltr">Retail Recognition:&nbsp;In the retail sector, the application of NVIDIA TAO for retail recognition tasks illustrates how edge AI can transform inventory management. The models could help with identifying a vast array of retail Stock Keeping Units (SKUs), facilitating better stock management, customer service, and logistical efficiency. By automating the recognition process, retailers can ensure more accurate inventory tracking and faster response times, leading to enhanced operational efficiency and customer satisfaction.</p><p dir="ltr">These practical applications and success stories demonstrate the broad utility and effectiveness of NVIDIA TAO when integrated with tools like Edge Impulse. The technology not only drives innovation and efficiency in existing processes but also opens up new possibilities for smart manufacturing, retail management, and beyond.</p><p dir="ltr"><em><strong>Further reading:&nbsp;</strong></em><a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/a-practical-guide-to-understanding-sensor-fusion-with-edge-impulse-building-a-smart-running-jacket" target="_blank" id="isPasted"><strong><em>A Practical Guide to Understanding Sensor Fusion with Edge Impulse: Building a Smart Running Jacket</em></strong></a></p><h2 dir="ltr">Getting Started and Resources</h2><p dir="ltr">To begin utilizing NVIDIA TAO and Edge Impulse to develop and deploy AI models on edge devices, it's essential to engage with a variety of resources and steps designed to streamline this process.</p><p dir="ltr">Firstly, a thorough exploration of the available documentation is crucial. Both <a href="https://docs.edgeimpulse.com/docs/edge-impulse-studio/learning-blocks/nvidia-tao" target="_blank">Edge Impulse</a> and <a href="https://developer.nvidia.com/tao-toolkit" target="_blank">NVIDIA</a> provide comprehensive guides and tutorials on their respective websites. These documents are invaluable for understanding how to effectively integrate NVIDIA TAO models into Edge Impulse projects.</p><p dir="ltr">Additionally, Edge Impulse and Nvidia provide YouTube videos that detail the application and integration of NVIDIA TAO. These resources complement the written documentation and provide a medium through which users can understand how to work with these technologies.<span contenteditable="false" draggable="true" class="fr-video fr-deletable fr-fvc fr-dvb fr-draggable"><iframe width="640" height="360" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/bwquofcF94g?&amp;ab_channel=EdgeImpulse&amp;wmode=opaque&amp;rel=0&amp;enablejsapi=1&amp;origin=https://www.wevolver.com" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="" class="fr-draggable" data-lf-form-tracking-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-yt-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-vimeo-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true"></iframe></span></p><p dir="ltr">Support doesn’t end with documentation and tutorials. NVIDIA and Edge Impulse have active forums like - <a href="https://forum.edgeimpulse.com/" target="_blank">Edge Impulse Forums</a> and <a href="https://forums.developer.nvidia.com/c/accelerated-computing/intelligent-video-analytics/tao-toolkit/17" target="_blank">NVIDIA Developer Forums</a>, where users can engage with a community of like-minded individuals. These forums are a great place to seek advice, ask questions, and share experiences related to edge AI development.</p><p dir="ltr">By leveraging these resources, developers can effectively navigate the initial learning curve and start applying NVIDIA TAO and Edge Impulse to real-world projects, gradually building up to more complex applications as familiarity with the tools increases.</p><p dir="ltr"><em><strong>Further reading:&nbsp;</strong></em><a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/building-high-performance-edge-ai-solutions-with-nvidia-jetson-and-edge-impulse" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><strong><em>Building High-Performance Edge AI Solutions with Nvidia Jetson and Edge Impulse</em></strong></a></p><h2 dir="ltr">Conclusion</h2><p dir="ltr">The integration of NVIDIA TAO and Edge Impulse brings in a new era of edge AI development, offering developers powerful tools to enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of their AI models. This combination brings together NVIDIA's advanced AI modeling capabilities with Edge Impulse's robust customization and deployment framework, enabling rapid development, optimization, and deployment of AI applications across a variety of platforms and devices.</p><p dir="ltr">For developers and companies venturing into edge AI, the synergy between NVIDIA TAO and Edge Impulse provides a competitive edge. By simplifying complex processes and reducing the time-to-market, this integration democratizes advanced AI technologies and empowers a broader range of users to innovate and solve real-world problems.</p><p dir="ltr"><span contenteditable="false" draggable="true" class="fr-video fr-deletable fr-fvc fr-dvb fr-draggable"><iframe width="540" height="600" src="https://c8056756.sibforms.com/serve/MUIFAMyA6BGksOUPEokHuBnEmZRHhYgJ4RXb4BV0gvzN98ymNIvQdTcBFQnRVfviT6yZSFW_R2g1hENBu7p7Afnyv9Kt0unAAbfFU5mMQhBwI-8hQnKf2r1mmRKhUgDLmtk8bpVSZ7kZGpleCPqtYRv8_kkvODL7F4neGLNGgdpFDm9pPzoYpwbQkc0BU5GVOFoq8CSmD0DDvDjG" frameborder="0" scrolling="auto" allowfullscreen="" style="display: block;margin-left: auto;margin-right: auto;max-width: 100%;" class="fr-draggable" data-lf-form-tracking-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-yt-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-vimeo-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true"></iframe></span><br></p><h2 dir="ltr">References</h2><p dir="ltr">[1] PCBClassification Model Card, Nvidia, 17 Oct 2023, [Online], Available from: <a href="https://catalog.ngc.nvidia.com/orgs/nvidia/teams/tao/models/pcb_classification" target="_blank">https://catalog.ngc.nvidia.com/orgs/nvidia/teams/tao/models/pcb_classification</a></p><p dir="ltr">[2] Trifork - Reducing baggage delay at airports with vision AI, Nvidia, [Online], Available from: <a href="https://resources.nvidia.com/en-us-metropolis-software-success-stories/trifork" target="_blank">https://resources.nvidia.com/en-us-metropolis-software-success-stories/trifork</a></p><p>[3] Nirmal Kumar Juluru, Zaid Pervaiz Bhat and Samuel Ochoa, ‘Transforming Industrial Defect Detection with NVIDIA TAO and Vision AI Models’, Nvidia, [Online], Available from: <a href="https://developer.nvidia.com/blog/transforming-industrial-defect-detection-with-nvidia-tao-and-vision-ai-models/" target="_blank">https://developer.nvidia.com/blog/transforming-industrial-defect-detection-with-nvidia-tao-and-vision-ai-models/</a></p>

NVIDIA TAO and Edge Impulse integrate to streamline the development and deployment of edge AI models, empowering developers to quickly build and optimize AI applications for diverse hardware environments.

Accelerating Edge AI Model Development Using Nvidia TAO and Edge Impulse

Unlock the secrets to enhancing electronic system performance through strategic PCB stackup configurations, crucial for ensuring signal integrity and mechanical stability.

PCB Stackup Optimization: Engineering Robust Electronics

<p dir="ltr" id="isPasted">The market for additive printed circuit boards (PCBs) and flexible electronics is full of possibilities, with applications including IoT-connected skin patches, environmental sensing devices, flexible electronic displays, and much more. However, making such devices requires a carefully developed selection of materials (not all of which are electrically conductive). This article provides an overview of three key groups of materials required for additive PCBs and flexible electronics: conductive inks, substrates, and solder pastes. Throughout the article, we look at the most important materials within each group and see how additive PCB pioneer <a href="https://hubs.ly/Q02hPg450" target="_blank">Voltera</a> is pushing electronics material possibilities to the limit.</p><h1 dir="ltr">Conductive Inks in Additive Manufacturing: Making Prints Electronic</h1><p dir="ltr">A conductive ink is a type of functional ink that can conduct electricity after it has been printed and processed. Printing involves depositing the ink in a computer-specified pattern with a dedicated machine, and processing typically involves applying heat to the printed pattern. Once processed, the ink can carry electrons from one place to another.</p><p dir="ltr">Conductive inks are made up of several components. The conductive element or filler must be a conductive material like silver, copper, or graphene particles. However, for the ink to flow freely and be accurately printable, it needs to contain many other components too, components collectively known as the vehicle. These ingredients may include binders to give the ink its polymeric backbone, solvents to dissolve the other components, and dispersants to help the ink flow and cure.</p><h2 dir="ltr">Types of Conductive Inks</h2><ul><li dir="ltr"><p dir="ltr">Silver: Perhaps the most important type of conductive ink for additive PCBs and flexible electronics is silver ink. This is partly due to the good conductive properties of silver and partly because of its ubiquity: silver inks are widely available and inexpensive, allowing for low-cost printed electronics like sensors and antennae.</p></li><li dir="ltr"><p dir="ltr">Copper: An alternative to silver ink is copper ink. Copper is also a conductive metal and is consequently used in traditional PCB production techniques like etching. However, because it oxidizes when cured in air, it requires extra processing which can increase the overall cost of printing.</p></li><li dir="ltr"><p dir="ltr">Carbon: Materials like carbon black, carbon nanotubes, and graphene — a carbon allotrope with a very high level of conductivity — can also be used as fillers in conductive inks, with almost limitless potential uses. Electronics applications include sensors, resistors, and heating elements.</p></li><li dir="ltr"><p dir="ltr">Conductive Polymers: Certain polymers such as polythiophene can be used as conductive printable inks. These polymers become conductive when they are oxidized due to the delocalization of their electrons.</p></li></ul><h2 dir="ltr">Innovative Materials and Future Trends</h2><p dir="ltr">Inks used in printed electronics are not just limited to conductivity. Other applications include the use of electroluminescent inks such as those developed by <a href="https://www.saralon.com/en/" target="_blank">Saralon</a>, which emit light when an electrical current passes through them.&nbsp;</p><p dir="ltr"><span contenteditable="false" draggable="true" class="fr-video fr-deletable fr-fvc fr-dvb fr-draggable"><iframe width="640" height="360" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/Yc8nEoVnpDY?&amp;wmode=opaque&amp;rel=0&amp;enablejsapi=1&amp;origin=https://www.wevolver.com" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="" class="fr-draggable" data-lf-form-tracking-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-yt-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-vimeo-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true"><span class="fr-mk" style="display: none;">&nbsp;</span><span class="fr-mk" style="display: none;">&nbsp;</span><span class="fr-mk" style="display: none;">&nbsp;</span></iframe></span></p><p dir="ltr">By printing with these inks, it is possible to create an Electroluminescent Displays (ELD) on a substrate. Another exciting area of printed electronics is the creation of bioelectronic medical devices. Researchers have had some success developing biocompatible inks that are both conductive and harmless to cells.</p><h2 dir="ltr" id="isPasted">Popular Conductive Inks</h2><div dir="ltr" align="center"><table><tbody><tr><td><p dir="ltr">Manufacturer</p></td><td><p dir="ltr">Conductive Ink</p></td><td><p dir="ltr">Filler</p></td><td><p dir="ltr">Advantages</p></td></tr><tr><td><p dir="ltr">Voltera</p></td><td><p dir="ltr">Conductor 3</p></td><td><p dir="ltr">Silver</p></td><td><p dir="ltr">Rapid curing, no burnishing</p></td></tr><tr><td><p dir="ltr">ACI Materials</p></td><td><p dir="ltr">SS1109</p></td><td><p dir="ltr">Silver</p></td><td><p dir="ltr">Stretchable for elastomeric substrates</p></td></tr><tr><td><p dir="ltr">Copprint</p></td><td><p dir="ltr">LF-360</p></td><td><p dir="ltr">Copper</p></td><td><p dir="ltr">Patented sintering agent that prevents oxidation</p></td></tr><tr><td><p dir="ltr">Celanese</p></td><td><p dir="ltr">Micromax 7082</p></td><td><p dir="ltr">Carbon</p></td><td><p dir="ltr">Custom resistance blends</p></td></tr><tr><td><p dir="ltr">Saralon</p></td><td><p dir="ltr">Saral BluePhosphorL 800</p></td><td><p dir="ltr">Silver</p></td><td><p dir="ltr">Electroluminescent blue light</p></td></tr><tr><td><p dir="ltr">Henkel Adhesives</p></td><td><p dir="ltr">LOCTITE EDAG 7019 E&amp;C</p></td><td><p dir="ltr">Silver and Silver Chloride</p></td><td><p dir="ltr">Non-toxic and suitable for medical applications</p></td></tr><tr><td><p dir="ltr">Creative Materials</p></td><td><p dir="ltr">128-24</p></td><td><p dir="ltr">Gold</p></td><td><p dir="ltr">Highly conductive</p></td></tr></tbody></table></div><h2>Substrates: The Foundation of Flexible Electronics</h2><p dir="ltr">Conductive inks open up a world of opportunities in additive PCBs and electronics. But electronics printing works differently compared to ordinary additive manufacturing: you cannot print an entire device out of conductive ink. Instead, the ink needs to be printed onto something. The durable material required here is known as the substrate, and it forms the foundation of flexible electronics and other devices.</p><p dir="ltr">As with conductive inks, there are several options to choose from when it comes to the substrate. Established types of rigid substrates include FR4, a glass-reinforced epoxy laminate, and FR1, a low-cost alternative made of paper and phenolic resin.</p><p dir="ltr">While rigid substrates are incredibly useful, one of the most exciting applications of printed electronics is the use of flexible substrates for devices like wearables. Flexible substrates can endure bending and various motions while maintaining functionality. They include films, foils, and even paper (electronic RFID tags are regularly printed on paper transit tickets, for example). Flexible substrates require specially developed conductive inks that will not crack or deform when the substrate bends.</p><p dir="ltr">Some flexible substrates can also be classified as stretchable substrates. Unlike papers and foils, these materials have good tensile strength and can have additional uses in printed electronics. However, it can be slightly harder to match stretchable substrates with a suitable ink; this is because the ink must stretch congruently with the substrate to avoid circuit breakage and separation from the underlying substrate or layer. When choosing a stretchable substrate like TPU, the ink must be carefully selected to accommodate its stretchability.</p><h2 dir="ltr">Types of Flexible Substrates</h2><ul><li dir="ltr"><p dir="ltr">PI (Kapton): Polyimide films possess excellent thermal stability, electrical insulation, and flexibility, making them a good choice for applications like flexible displays and flexible batteries. Though polyimide is its scientific name, the material is referred to as Kapton, a brand name owned by DuPont.</p></li><li dir="ltr"><p dir="ltr">PET: Polyethylene terephthalate, the most widely used material in the polyester family, is commonly used to make items like single-use water bottles. However, it also makes an excellent flexible substrate for flexible electronics like force-sensitive resistors. It is recyclable and more affordable than polyimide but less thermally stable.</p></li><li dir="ltr"><p dir="ltr">TPU: Thermoplastic polyurethane makes a very good substrate for flexible and stretchable electronics due to its elasticity and resistance to abrasion and oil. Its rubber-like consistency makes it suitable for wearable electronics like smart watches and even textile-based smart clothing.</p></li></ul><h2 dir="ltr" id="isPasted">Popular Substrates</h2><div dir="ltr" align="center"><table><tbody><tr><td style="width: 21.6511%;"><p dir="ltr"><strong>Manufacturer</strong></p></td><td style="width: 21.6511%;"><p dir="ltr"><strong>Substrate</strong></p></td><td style="width: 16.3551%;"><p dir="ltr"><strong>Material</strong></p></td><td style="width: 40.3427%;"><p dir="ltr"><strong>Advantages</strong></p></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 21.6511%;"><p dir="ltr">DuPont</p></td><td style="width: 21.6511%;"><p dir="ltr">Kapton FPC</p></td><td style="width: 16.3551%;"><p dir="ltr">Polyimide</p></td><td style="width: 40.3427%;"><p dir="ltr">Excellent dimensional stability and adhesion</p></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 21.6511%;"><p dir="ltr">Polyonics</p></td><td style="width: 21.6511%;"><p dir="ltr">XF102</p></td><td style="width: 16.3551%;"><p dir="ltr">Polyimide</p></td><td style="width: 40.3427%;"><p dir="ltr">High level flexibility and temperature resistance</p></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 21.6511%;"><p dir="ltr">BEYOLEX (Panasonic)</p></td><td style="width: 21.6511%;"><p dir="ltr">MUAS13111AA</p></td><td style="width: 16.3551%;"><p dir="ltr">Thermoset film</p></td><td style="width: 40.3427%;"><p dir="ltr">Suitable for stretchable electronics</p></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 21.6511%;"><p dir="ltr">Insulectro</p></td><td style="width: 21.6511%;"><p dir="ltr">Intexar TE-11C</p></td><td style="width: 16.3551%;"><p dir="ltr">TPU</p></td><td style="width: 40.3427%;"><p dir="ltr">Suitable for smart clothing</p></td></tr></tbody></table></div><h2>Solder Paste: The Secret Sauce for Printed Electronics</h2><p dir="ltr">We have so far looked at two very important groups of materials in PCBs and flexible electronics: the conductive inks that allow for the transfer of electrons and the substrates upon which these inks can be deposited in a specific pattern (and which can sometimes bend and stretch for added functionality). A third material, less glamorous but no less important, is solder paste. This critical substance allows PCB designers to add pre-existing electronic components onto their boards.</p><p dir="ltr">Solder is a metal alloy that can be fused to bond two pieces of metal. In many industries, a solder bar or wire is used in conjunction with a tool like a soldering iron or gun and a separate wetting agent called flux. In printed electronics, things are done a little differently. Here, solder paste — containing powdered solder and flux (which acts as a cleaning, flowing, and purifying agent) already mixed together — is deposited alongside conductive inks onto the substrate. After its application alongside conductive inks on the substrate, the solder paste undergoes a reflow process. During reflow, the assembly is heated, causing the solder paste to melt and flow — forming solid, electrically conductive connections upon cooling. The solder itself typically contains tin and other metals.</p><h1 dir="ltr">Voltera’s Approach to PCBs and Flexible Electronics</h1><p dir="ltr">Additive electronics expert <a href="https://hubs.ly/Q02hPg450" target="_blank">Voltera</a>, based in Canada, develops printers that dispense conductive inks for PCBs and functional electronic devices. Its <a href="https://www.voltera.io/v-one?utm_campaign=Wevolver&utm_source=Blog&utm_content=V-One" target="_blank">V-One PCB printer</a> lets users prototype printed circuit boards in less than an hour, while its <a href="https://www.voltera.io/nova?utm_campaign=Wevolver&utm_source=Blog&utm_content=NOVA" target="_blank">NOVA materials dispensing system</a> can print a wide array of conductive materials onto a range of substrates, including flexible, stretchable, and porous materials. Both machines also deposit solder paste, allowing for the creation of functional electronics.</p><p dir="ltr">In terms of the specific inks, substrates, and solder pastes that the V-One and NOVA use to make PCBs and flexible electronics, perhaps the most important material of all is <a href="https://store.voltera.io/products/conductor-3-ink-cartridge-2ml?_pos=1&_sid=92a745f26&_ss=r" target="_blank">Conductor 3</a>. Voltera’s own silver-based conductive ink formulation boasts a 30-minute curing time, a low soldering temperature of 180°C, and compatibility with rigid and flexible substrates. Importantly, however, NOVA is also compatible with other screen-printable inks.</p><p dir="ltr">Voltera also brings a new level of substrate flexibility to flexible substrates. NOVA’s vacuum table creates uniform suction which keeps flexible and soft substrates in place, enabling high-precision printing upon the chosen material, while a Smart Probe maps the height of the substrate. There is also a threaded mounting grid to secure custom rigid substrates of different shapes and sizes.&nbsp;</p><p dir="ltr">Finally, both Voltera systems offer precision solder paste deposition, with the company offering tin-lead eutectic alloy and a tin-bismuth-silver alloy in T4 or T5 particle sizes, so users can solder components to their boards with precision.</p><p dir="ltr"><span class="fr-img-caption fr-fic fr-dii" style="width: 780px;"><span class="fr-img-wrap"><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzE0OTk5NzU3MDM2LWludGVybmFsIHZvbHRlcmEuanBnIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" width="624" height="351" class="fr-fic fr-dii"><span class="fr-inner">Voltera enables the streamlining of research and development with direct-ink-write dispensing. Credit: Voltera</span></span></span></p><h2 dir="ltr">Conclusion</h2><p dir="ltr">The PCB and flexible electronics industry moves at a fast pace. Material scientists are constantly seeking solutions to current challenges in order to evolve the technology and create electronics with greater functionality, longevity, and sustainability. And with interest rising in products like flexible displays, wearable technology, and flexible photovoltaics, the demand for printed electronics materials — inks, substrates, and pastes alike — will continue to grow.</p>

PCBs printed onto flexible substrates demonstrate huge potential across a range of industries. But what are the materials used to make these printed devices?

The Building Blocks of Innovation: Inks, Substrates, and Solder Pastes for Additive PCBs and Flexible Electronics

<p id="isPasted">BGAs&nbsp;(Ball Grid Array)&nbsp;are&nbsp;a type of&nbsp;lead-less&nbsp;surface mount&nbsp;semiconductor package&nbsp;that, as the name suggests,&nbsp;features an array of spherical solder balls on the underside of the package.</p><p>Many motherboard control chips utilize this packaging technology.&nbsp;Memory chips&nbsp;utilizing this package technology&nbsp;can double or triple their capacity without increasing in size&nbsp;and compared to&nbsp;other packages, BGA offer&nbsp;higher pin counts,&nbsp;superior heat dissipation&nbsp;and enhanced electrical performance&nbsp;in a smaller volume.</p><p>The technological success of&nbsp;compact packages including&nbsp;BGA packages allow us to have&nbsp;supercomputers that fit in the palm of our hands. Microprocessors, FPGAs, and memory chips are increasingly being offered in BGA type packages as general PCB assembly capabilities catch-up and the demand for small and powerful electronics continues to increase. However, their utilization poses challenges for PCB layout and manufacture.</p><p>Small-pitch BGA packages and packages with higher pin counts encroach on the limits of many modern assembly houses’&nbsp;capabilities and call for complex PCB stack-ups and via technologies, not to mention the power and heat dissipation and signal integrity of the overall design must be considered.</p><p>Designing with BGAs require significant investment and preparation in terms of researching manufacturing and design techniques, and money as the techniques required to fully route-out fine-pitch and larger BGA packages are advanced and costly, and poor design decisions could increase the manufacturing costs by several factors.</p><p>Before choosing to design with BGA packages, designers should acquaint themselves with the capabilities of their PCB manufacturer and assembly house and familiarize themselves with the design techniques needed to achieve a reliable design at the best price possible. Failure to do so could result in unexpected expenses or wasted time reworking or restarting a design.</p><p>In this article, we summarize a few BGA design considerations designers should be aware of before beginning a BGA design, especially fine-pitch BGAs (0.5mm pitch and below BGAs).</p><h3><strong id="isPasted">Routing&nbsp;</strong><strong>Traces&nbsp;</strong><strong>Between BGA Pads</strong></h3><p>The number of traces that can be routed between BGA pads is determined by the BGA pitch (center-to-center spacing) and the PCB fabricators capabilities. Typically traces can be routed between pads for 0.5mm and above pitch BGAs. Two can be squeezed in between 0.8mm pitch and above pitch BGAs. For 0.4mm pitch and below BGAs, routing between them is not feasible due to trace width and spacing limitations. Many PCB manufacturers can produce 4mil (0.1mm) traces reliably and 3-3.5mil is not uncommon if used for limited to necking. Necking of traces is where the trace thickness is reduced in select areas. Necking can allow for routing between 0.5mm pitch BGAs pads and routing of more than one trace between pads of larger pitch BGAs.</p><h3><strong id="isPasted">BGA Pad Size</strong></h3><p>To route traces, BGA pads should be sized accordingly to ensure adequate spacing between pads. Manufacturers will modify production files to fit their processes and if the spacings are not adequate, excess copper may be shaved off. If the BGA pads are cut into irregular shapes, the quality of the solder joints could be affected.</p><p><span class="fr-img-caption fr-fic fr-dib" style="width: 790px;"><span class="fr-img-wrap"><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzE0ODM3ODc0MDI1LUJHQSBiZWZvcmUgYW5kIGFmdGVyIHByb2Nlc3NpbmcucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"><span class="fr-inner" spellcheck="false">Gerber file design before and after post-processing</span></span></span></p><h3><strong id="isPasted">Via-in-Pad via filling and capping</strong></h3><p>When pad spacing is tight and routing between pads is not possible (such as for 0.4mm pitch BGAs), vias can be placed directly on top of BGA pads (via-on-pad), allowing for signal transfer to the inner or bottom layers. However, it is important that these vias are filled and capped. If not, solder joint defects are almost certain to occur due to the non-planar surface and solder leaking through the vias.</p><p>The via filling and capping process involves using specialized equipment to <em>fill</em> the vias with a non-conductive epoxy then <em>capping</em> them by plating over the via, essentially adding a pad on top of the via. The plated over vias are visually indistinguishable from regular BGA pads to the naked eye.&nbsp;</p><p><span class="fr-img-caption fr-fic fr-dib" style="width: 790px;"><span class="fr-img-wrap"><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzE0ODM4MDUxODczLUJHQSB2aWEtb24tcGFkIHdpdGhvdXQgZmlsbGluZyBhbmQgY2FwcGluZy5wbmciLCJlZGl0cyI6eyJyZXNpemUiOnsid2lkdGgiOjk1MCwiZml0IjoiY292ZXIifX19" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib" alt="Via-on-pads on BGA pads without filling and capping"><span class="fr-inner" spellcheck="false">Via-on-pads on the pads of a BGA land without filling and capping<br></span></span></span></p><h3><strong id="isPasted">Tenting of Regular BGA Vias</strong></h3><p>Regular vias between BGA pads should be covered to prevent the solder ball and molten solder paste wicking away from the BGA pads, short circuits and to protect the via from environmental contaminants. Various methods are available for different quality levels.</p><p>The most basic is to simply cover the vias with solder mask i.e. tent the vias. The solder mask offers a fine layer of protection from contaminants and electrical shorts, however, the level of coverage depends on the viscosity of the solder mask oil and via size. The holes of larger vias may not be fully covered and there is the risk of the via popping during reflow if there is moisture inside the via.</p><p>Solder mask plugging is another option which adds an extra production step to press solder mask oil into the vias before the general solder mask covering. This ensures that the via barrel is blocked with solder mask but is not guaranteed to be fully filled.&nbsp;</p><p>The optimal solution is to have all vias filled with epoxy but since this an expensive process, this is usually reserved for high demand applications where via reliability and lifetime is important.</p><p><span class="fr-img-caption fr-fic fr-dib" style="width: 790px;"><span class="fr-img-wrap"><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzE0ODM4OTUwMzQ4LUJHQSBDQU0gdmlldy5wbmciLCJlZGl0cyI6eyJyZXNpemUiOnsid2lkdGgiOjk1MCwiZml0IjoiY292ZXIifX19" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"><span class="fr-inner" spellcheck="false">BGA land pattern on a PCB with the vias closed (no solder mask openings) as indicated by the lack of yellow circles on the vias</span></span></span></p><h3><strong id="isPasted">Via-In-Pad and HDI Design</strong></h3><p>For fine-pitch BGA chips where traces cannot be routed between pads, it is advisable to utilize a HDI (high-density-interconnect) design with blind and buried vias. For example, mobile phone boards typically have small BGA chips that do not allow for routing between pads.&nbsp;</p><p>A HDI design with blind and buried vias can be used to make maximum use of the available space in all layers however, the specific stack-up, types of blind/buried vias and total number of layers can have a significant impact on the PCB manufacture cost. It is recommended to consider all possible options on a cost-benefit basis before beginning a design and choosing the types of blind buried vias to use.</p><p><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzE0ODQwMTcwODA2LUhESSBQQ0IgQkdBIERlc2lnbi5wbmciLCJlZGl0cyI6eyJyZXNpemUiOnsid2lkdGgiOjk1MCwiZml0IjoiY292ZXIifX19" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"></p><h2 id="isPasted">Tools for Improving BGA PCB Design</h2><p>Many considerations go into designing a PCB based on a BGA device beyond the scope of this article. HQDFM is a free software developed by HQ NextPCB (HQ Electronics) that inspects Gerber files or OBD++ files for common design for manufacture errors that may affect reliability, cost or manufacturability.</p><h3><strong>Via-In-Pad Design</strong></h3><p>HQDFM can detect via-in-pads and reminds designers that via-in-pads should be filled and plated to prevent solder defects and that this increases production costs significantly. If these can be moved away from the pad and converted to regular vias, this will remove the need for via filling and capping.</p><p><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzE0ODQwNzExODgxLVAgVmlhLWluLXBhZC5wbmciLCJlZGl0cyI6eyJyZXNpemUiOnsid2lkdGgiOjk1MCwiZml0IjoiY292ZXIifX19" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"></p><h3><strong>Pad-to-Pin Size&nbsp;</strong><strong>Ratio</strong></h3><p>HQDFM can compare the solder pad size to the size of the BGA ball. A pad diameter less than 20% smaller than the BGA pin size could lead to insufficient space for routing, while more than 25% might result in poor solder joints. In such cases, design engineers need to adjust the ratio of pad diameter to BGA pin diameter.</p><p><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzE0ODQwNzg4Mzg1LVAgQkdBIFBhZCBzaXplLnBuZyIsImVkaXRzIjp7InJlc2l6ZSI6eyJ3aWR0aCI6OTUwLCJmaXQiOiJjb3ZlciJ9fX0=" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"></p><p>HQDFM can also detect areas where trace widths and spacings are inadequate, opened vias, poor component placement and spacing and more not just related to BGA design.&nbsp;</p><p id="isPasted">HQDFM is a free PCB design analysis software covering bare board and populated PCB analysis. With over 200 inspection items under 30 DFM and DFA categories including trace, solder mask and drill clearances, pads dimensions, shorts/opens, drill hole sizes and solder mask dams. HQDFM also provides tools for the designing and manufacturing PCBs including an impedance calculator, panelization tool, footprint, BOM and centroid file checker.</p><p>Transform your workflow and swiftly integrate DFM methodologies into your product development with the <a href="https://www.nextpcb.com/free-online-gerber-viewer.html" target="_blank" rel="nofollow">HQDFM</a> desktop suite from <a href="http://www.nextpcb.com" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">HQ Electronics (NextPCB)</a>.</p>

The miniaturization of electronics is widely attributed to advances in semiconductor technology as observed by Moore’s Law, but many overlook the design and manufacturing challenges involved in utilizing small device packages such as ball grid arrays.

Design for Manufacture Considerations for Ball Grid Array (BGA) Packages

A comprehensive exploration of open circuits, detailing their characteristics, detection methods, and the pivotal role they play in modern engineering systems.

What is an Open Circuit: A Deep Dive for Engineers

<p id="isPasted">Electrostatic capacitors play a crucial role in modern electronics. They enable ultrafast charging and discharging, providing energy storage and power for devices ranging from smartphones, laptops and routers to medical devices, automotive electronics and industrial equipment. However, the ferroelectric materials used in capacitors have significant energy loss due to their material properties, making it difficult to provide high energy storage capability.&nbsp;</p><p><a href="https://engineering.wustl.edu/faculty/Sang-Hoon-Bae.html" target="_blank">Sang-Hoon Bae</a>, assistant professor of mechanical engineering &amp; materials science in the McKelvey School of Engineering at Washington University in St. Louis, has addressed this long-standing challenge in deploying ferroelectric materials for energy storage applications. In a study published April 18 in&nbsp;<a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adl2835" target="_blank"><em>Science</em></a>, Bae and his collaborators, including&nbsp;<a href="https://engineering.wustl.edu/faculty/Rohan-Mishra.html" target="_blank">Rohan Mishra</a>, associate professor of mechanical engineering &amp; materials science, and&nbsp;<a href="https://engineering.wustl.edu/faculty/Chuan-Wang.html" target="_blank">Chuan Wang</a>, associate professor of electrical &amp; systems engineering, both at WashU, and&nbsp;<a href="https://dmse.mit.edu/faculty/frances-ross/" target="_blank">Frances Ross</a>, the TDK Professor in Materials Science and Engineering at MIT, introduced an approach to control the relaxation time – an internal material property that describes how long it takes for charge to dissipate or decay – of ferroelectric capacitors using 2D materials.&nbsp;</p><p>Working with Bae, doctoral student Justin S. Kim and postdoctoral researcher Sangmoon Han developed novel 2D/3D/2D heterostructures that can minimize energy loss while preserving the advantageous material properties of ferroelectric 3D materials. Their approach cleverly sandwiches 2D and 3D materials in atomically thin layers with carefully engineered chemical and nonchemical bonds between each layer. A very thin 3D core is inserted between two outer 2D layers to create a stack only about 30 nanometers thick. That’s about one-tenth the size of an average virus particle.&nbsp;</p><p>“We created a new structure based on the&nbsp;<a href="https://engineering.wustl.edu/news/2023/2D-material-reshapes-3D-electronics-for-AI-hardware.html" target="_blank">innovations we’ve already made in my lab involving 2D materials</a>,” Bae said. “Initially, we weren’t focused on energy storage, but during our exploration of material properties, we found a new physical phenomenon that we realized could be applied to energy storage, and that was both very interesting and potentially much more useful.”</p><p>The 2D/3D/2D heterostructures are finely crafted to sit in the sweet spot between conductivity and nonconductivity where semiconducting materials have optimal electric properties for energy storage. With this design, Bae and his collaborators reported an energy density up to 19 times higher than commercially available ferroelectric capacitors, and they achieved an efficiency over 90%, which is also unprecedented.</p><p>“We found that dielectric relaxation time can be modulated or induced by a very small gap in the material structure,” Bae explained. “That new physical phenomenon is something we hadn’t seen before. It enables us to manipulate dielectric material in such a way that it doesn’t polarize and lose charge capability.”</p><p>As the world grapples with the imperative of&nbsp;<a href="https://engineering.wustl.edu/news/2023/Groundbreaking-work-for-high-quality-2D-materials-growth.html" target="_blank">transitioning toward next-generation electronics components</a>, Bae's novel heterostructure material paves the way for high-performance electronic devices, encompassing high-power electronics, high-frequency wireless communication systems, and integrated circuit chips. These advancements are particularly crucial in sectors requiring robust power management solutions, such as electric vehicles and infrastructure development.</p><p>“Fundamentally, this structure we’ve developed is a novel electronic material,” Bae said. “We’re not yet 100% optimal, but already we’re outperforming what other labs are doing. Our next steps will be to make this material structure even better, so we can meet the need for ultrafast charging and discharging and very high energy densities in capacitors. We must be able to do that without losing storage capacity over repeated charges to see this material used broadly in large electronics, like electric vehicles, and other developing green technologies.”</p><hr><p>Han S, Kim JS, Park E, Meng Y, Xu Z, Foucher AC, Jung GY, Roh I, Lee S, Kim SO, Moon JY, Kim SI, Bae S, Zhang X, Park BI, Seo S, Li Y, Shin H, Reidy K, Hoang AT, Sundaram S, Vuong P, Kim C, Zhao J, Hwang J, Wang C, Choi H, Kim DH, Kwon J, Park JH, Ougazzaden A, Lee JH, Ahn JH, Kim J, Mishra R, Kim HS, Ross FM, and Bae SH. High energy density in artificial heterostructures through relaxation time modulation.&nbsp;<em>Science</em>, April 18, 2024. DOI: <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adl2835" target="_blank">https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adl2835</a>&nbsp;</p>

Artificial heterostructures made of freestanding 2D and 3D membranes developed by Sang-Hoon Bae’s lab have an energy density up to 19 times higher than commercially available capacitors. (Credit: Bae Lab)

Sang-Hoon Bae developed heterostructures with material properties optimal for high-density energy storage, durable ultrafast charging

Novel material supercharges innovation in electrostatic energy storage

PCB or small components on flexible ribbon cables

This article delves into the innovative world of flexible printed circuit boards, uncovering their design, advancements, and transformative role in modern engineering applications.

Flexible PCBs in Modern Engineering

<h1 id="isPasted"><br></h1><section><p>When you hear the word “drone,” you likely imagine an airborne device the size of a hat box that uses propellers to fly and is controlled remotely by someone in the immediate vicinity, perhaps in a park or another open area. Recreational drones like these have become increasingly popular in recent years.</p><p>But if you expand your definition of drones to include all unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), ranging from long-range drones used in military applications, to transport vehicles, to insect-sized drones, their potential applications expand exponentially. Imagine commercial airliners without pilots, drones capable of transporting shipping containers like those now delivered by trucks and ships, or even tiny, dexterous drones that fly into narrow gaps like insects.</p><p>While there are many obstacles for developers to overcome before these innovations can become a reality, the technology is evolving quickly – much faster than you might expect. This blog discusses where the technology currently stands and where it may go.</p><h2></h2><h3>High-Capacity Drones: Autonomy and Engine Innovations</h3><p>Scaling up drones to carry larger payloads, fly at higher altitudes, and travel greater distances presents major challenges for developers. Currently, semi- and fully autonomous large-scale drones (classified as UAVs that can carry a payload of greater than 1320 pounds and operate at altitudes greater than 18,000 feet) are most commonly implemented by military organizations to replace aircraft piloted by human operators.</p><p>Unlike smaller counterparts that rely on electric motors, larger drones use more robust internal combustion or jet engines. Not just a matter of size scaling, this means enhanced efficiency, reduced weight, and optimized fuel consumption, while also delivering precision control crucial in moving large loads.</p><p>By removing the human pilot and the various systems needed to support him, most large-scale drones are lighter and are usually built from lighter materials like plastics or carbon fibers. This increases the range of the vehicle. It can also reduce engine weight without compromising strength.</p><p>This is especially true for high-altitude long-endurance (HALE) drones. HALE drones must stay airborne for extended periods, sometimes days, at various altitudes and temperatures, and are often solar-powered. They are ideally suited for reconnaissance. In 2021, the U.S. Forest Service began testing HALE drones to locate and fight wildfires.</p><p>However, UAVs that operate at higher altitudes have more difficulty dissipating heat in the thinner atmosphere where they fly. <a href="https://www.macrofab.com/blog/overview-pcba-manufacturing-processes-technologies/" target="_blank">Printed circuit boards</a> for larger UAVs require additional heat transfer and use additional metal to connect to heat sinks to maximize performance at higher altitudes. This must be taken into consideration at the design stage. Simulating heat generation, flow, and dissipation in the development process is a valuable tool for these types of designs.</p><p>In terms of operational control, remotely piloted ICE (internal combustion engine) or jet aircraft aren’t significantly different from their traditional onboard piloted counterparts. A human operator guides the drone from a station with controls and monitors that are similar to the ones in airplane cockpits while cameras and radar-based imaging systems provide the visuals.</p><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1714573625993-1714573625993.png" alt="Drone carrying package" class="fr-fic fr-dii"><p>“Flying cars,” or “air taxis,” are already a reality, with China approving the first self-driving air taxi late in 2023. <a href="https://www.faa.gov/air-taxis" target="_blank">Similar air taxis are being planned in the USA</a>, though they will initially require a pilot on board for safety.</p><p>However, a significant hurdle in designing UAVs for human transportation or valuable cargo lies in bridging the information gap. While current sensors can track weather conditions, altitude, and airspeed, they cannot do so with the speed and sensitivity necessary. Onboard pilots can sense subtle changes in an aircraft’s behavior intuitively, a nuance challenging to replicate with sensors. By 2030, 6G wireless networks should significantly alleviate this issue by enabling ultra-low latency and improved data reliability, enhancing sensor responsiveness.</p><p>Lastly, many UAVs today boast semi-autonomous features like the ability to return to their starting point unaided. Autonomous or semi-autonomous flight software must be capable of dynamically adjusting flight paths in response to changing conditions, akin to how commercial airline pilots maneuver to avoid turbulence. This capability underscores the ongoing evolution and increasing sophistication of UAV technology in adapting to complex operational environments.</p><h2></h2><h3>Compact Drone Engineering: Revolutionizing Small-Scale UAVs</h3><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1714573626104-1714573626104.png" alt="Compact drone engineering" class="fr-fic fr-dii"><p>Every drone, from super large to shoe-box sized, relies on motors or engines to propel itself. In contrast to making drones larger, which requires increasing their power while reducing their overall weight, making them smaller necessitates removing motors altogether.</p><p>Using actuators to mimic how an insect flaps its wings plays a role in “micro drone” design. Early versions of this technology used ceramic materials to conduct and store electricity, but their inherent fragility made them unsuitable for repeated use.</p><p>The most recent innovations implement soft actuators composed of rubber cylinders surrounded by carbon nanotubes. Applying voltage causes the rubber cylinders to expand and contract repetitively and at high frequency (as much as 500 times per second), causing the drone “wings” to flap up and down.</p><p>These tiny drones, with their soft actuators, are resilient and capable of withstanding mid-air collisions, making them suitable for various tasks, including agricultural monitoring and pollination. Future uses may include structural inspection, search and rescue, surveillance, and data collection.</p><p><a href="https://www.macrofab.com/prototyping/" target="_blank">PCB designs</a> for smaller, more malleable devices have to consider factors like weight, rigidity, and resistance to impact and vibration. As in the case of larger UAVs, software simulation to test mechanical reliability in smaller UAVs is a valuable development tool.</p><h2></h2><h3>The Future of UAVs Great and Small</h3><p>In the future, UAV commercial passenger flights or large material transport using entirely autonomous flights still have some design challenges to overcome. Regulations, however, are more likely to hinder their long-term progress. Like self-driving cars, the adjustment period will require examining and discussing the risks and rationale of flying without a human pilot, with safety always taking precedence.</p><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1714573626041-1714573626041.png" alt="Uav future" class="fr-fic fr-dii"><p>On a smaller scale, however, UAVs may have more immediate practical applications. With micro drones with cameras that relay images back to a human operator, inspecting intricate mechanisms is possible in small spaces that are otherwise impossible to reach without dismantling the entire mechanism, such as industrial motors or airplane engines. Drones can even be used during natural disasters to locate missing or injured people who cannot be reached by rescue workers.</p><p>As UAVs shrink and grow, it will alter how we define them. Along with providing previously difficult-to-obtain images and delivering small payloads, UAVs will become a practical and labor-saving alternative to traditional means of transportation, cultivation, and commerce.</p></section><h3>Need UAV PCBAs Manufactured?</h3><p><a href="https://www.macrofab.com/pcba/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Check out MacroFab’s PCBA production services</a></p>

UAV technology continues to expand and become increasingly sophisticated. 

The Future of UAV Design: Very Big and Very Small

Wire Electrical Discharge Machining (Wire EDM) has revolutionized precision machining, empowering manufacturers to tackle with intricacies in aerospace, medical devices, and electronics. This latest technology pushes boundaries with its ability to create complex shapes and achieve point accuracy.

Wire EDM: Precision of Modern Engineering

<p id="isPasted">Entanglement is a form of correlation between quantum objects, such as particles at the atomic scale. This uniquely quantum phenomenon cannot be explained by the laws of classical physics, yet it is one of the properties that explains the macroscopic behavior of quantum systems.</p><p>Because entanglement is central to the way quantum systems work, understanding it better could give scientists a deeper sense of how information is stored and processed efficiently in such systems.</p><p>Qubits, or quantum bits, are the building blocks of a quantum computer. However, it is extremely difficult to make specific entangled states in many-qubit systems, let alone investigate them. There are also a variety of entangled states, and telling them apart can be challenging.</p><p>Now, MIT researchers have demonstrated a technique to efficiently generate entanglement among an array of superconducting qubits that exhibit a specific type of behavior.</p><p>Over the past years, the researchers at the Engineering Quantum Systems (<a href="https://equs.mit.edu/" target="_blank">EQuS</a>) group have developed techniques using microwave technology to precisely control a quantum processor composed of superconducting circuits. In addition to these control techniques, the methods introduced in this work enable the processor to efficiently generate highly entangled states and shift those states from one type of entanglement to another — including between types that are more likely to support quantum speed-up and those that are not.</p><p>“Here, we are demonstrating that we can utilize the emerging quantum processors as a tool to further our understanding of physics. While everything we did in this experiment was on a scale which can still be simulated on a classical computer, we have a good roadmap for scaling this technology and methodology beyond the reach of classical computing,” says Amir H. Karamlou ’18, MEng ’18, PhD ’23, the lead author of the paper.</p><p>The senior author is William D. Oliver, the Henry Ellis Warren professor of electrical engineering and computer science and of physics, director of the Center for Quantum Engineering, leader of the EQuS group, and associate director of the Research Laboratory of Electronics. Karamlou and Oliver are joined by Research Scientist Jeff Grover, postdoc Ilan Rosen, and others in the departments of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science and of Physics at MIT, at MIT Lincoln Laboratory, and at Wellesley College and the University of Maryland. The&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07325-z" target="_blank">research appears today in&nbsp;<em>Nature</em></a>.</p><h2><strong>Assessing entanglement</strong></h2><p>In a large quantum system comprising many interconnected qubits, one can think about entanglement as the amount of quantum information shared between a given subsystem of qubits and the rest of the larger system.</p><p>The entanglement within a quantum system can be categorized as area-law or volume-law, based on how this shared information scales with the geometry of subsystems. In volume-law entanglement, the amount of entanglement between a subsystem of qubits and the rest of the system grows proportionally with the total size of the subsystem.</p><p>On the other hand, area-law entanglement depends on how many shared connections exist between a subsystem of qubits and the larger system. As the subsystem expands, the amount of entanglement only grows along the boundary between the subsystem and the larger system.</p><p>In theory, the formation of volume-law entanglement is related to what makes quantum computing so powerful.</p><p>“While have not yet fully abstracted the role that entanglement plays in quantum algorithms, we do know that generating volume-law entanglement is a key ingredient to realizing a quantum advantage,” says Oliver.</p><p>However, volume-law entanglement is also more complex than area-law entanglement and practically prohibitive at scale to simulate using a classical computer.</p><p>“As you increase the complexity of your quantum system, it becomes increasingly difficult to simulate it with conventional computers. If I am trying to fully keep track of a system with 80 qubits, for instance, then I would need to store more information than what we have stored throughout the history of humanity,” Karamlou says.</p><p>The researchers created a quantum processor and control protocol that enable them to efficiently generate and probe both types of entanglement.</p><p>Their processor comprises superconducting circuits, which are used to engineer artificial atoms. The artificial atoms are utilized as qubits, which can be controlled and read out with high accuracy using microwave signals.</p><p>The device used for this experiment contained 16 qubits, arranged in a two-dimensional grid. The researchers carefully tuned the processor so all 16 qubits have the same transition frequency. Then, they applied an additional microwave drive to all of the qubits simultaneously.</p><p>If this microwave drive has the same frequency as the qubits, it generates quantum states that exhibit volume-law entanglement. However, as the microwave frequency increases or decreases, the qubits exhibit less volume-law entanglement, eventually crossing over to entangled states that increasingly follow an area-law scaling.</p><h2><strong>Careful control</strong></h2><p>“Our experiment is a tour de force of the capabilities of superconducting quantum processors. In one experiment, we operated the processor both as an analog simulation device, enabling us to efficiently prepare states with different entanglement structures, and as a digital computing device, needed to measure the ensuing entanglement scaling,” says Rosen.</p><p>To enable that control, the team put years of work into carefully building up the infrastructure around the quantum processor.</p><p>By demonstrating the crossover from volume-law to area-law entanglement, the researchers experimentally confirmed what theoretical studies had predicted. More importantly, this method can be used to determine whether the entanglement in a generic quantum processor is area-law or volume-law.</p><p>“The MIT experiment underscores the distinction between area-law and volume-law entanglement in two-dimensional quantum simulations using superconducting qubits. This beautifully complements our work on entanglement Hamiltonian tomography with trapped ions in a&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06768-0" target="_blank">parallel publication</a> published in&nbsp;<em>Nature</em> in 2023,” says Peter Zoller, a professor of theoretical physics at the University of Innsbruck, who was not involved with this work.</p><p>“Quantifying entanglement in large quantum systems is a challenging task for classical computers but a good example of where quantum simulation could help,” says Pedram Roushan of Google, who also was not involved in the study. “Using a 2D array of superconducting qubits, Karamlou and colleagues were able to measure entanglement entropy of various subsystems of various sizes. They measure the volume-law and area-law contributions to entropy, revealing crossover behavior as the system’s quantum state energy is tuned. It powerfully demonstrates the unique insights quantum simulators can offer.”</p><p>In the future, scientists could utilize this technique to study the thermodynamic behavior of complex quantum systems, which is too complex to be studied using current analytical methods and practically prohibitive to simulate on even the world’s most powerful supercomputers.</p><p>“The experiments we did in this work can be used to characterize or benchmark larger-scale quantum systems, and we may also learn something more about the nature of entanglement in these many-body systems,” says Karamlou.</p><p>Additional co-authors of the study are<a target="_blank">&nbsp;</a>Sarah E. Muschinske, Cora N. Barrett, Agustin Di Paolo, Leon Ding, Patrick M. Harrington, Max Hays, Rabindra Das, David K. Kim, Bethany M. Niedzielski, Meghan Schuldt, Kyle Serniak, Mollie E. Schwartz, Jonilyn L. Yoder, Simon Gustavsson, and Yariv Yanay.</p>

The advance offers a way to characterize a fundamental resource needed for quantum computing.

Scientists tune the entanglement structure in an array of qubits

<h2 id="isPasted">Join Our 2024 Community Survey – Shape the Future of Engineering!</h2><p>At Wevolver, we're committed to continuously evolving with the needs and insights of our community. That's why we're excited to announce the launch of our 2024 Wevolver Community Survey! This initiative is your opportunity to voice your thoughts, share your experiences, and directly influence the resources and discussions that drive our platform.</p><h2>Why Participate?</h2><p>Your input is vital. The insights gathered from this survey will help us understand current trends in engineering, identify the challenges you face, and discover the emerging technologies that excite you the most. 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As a token of our appreciation, all participants will be entered into a draw for a chance to <strong>w</strong><strong id="isPasted">in Exciting Prizes</strong><strong id="isPasted">!</strong></p><h2>Together, Let’s Engineer the Future!</h2><p>We're excited to hear from you. Your contributions not only enrich our community but also empower engineers around the world. Let's shape the future of engineering together.</p><p><a href="https://www.wevolver.com/survey/wevolver.staff?segment=platform" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" class="button-main-action">Start the survey now!</a></p><h2>Special Thanks to our Survey Sponsors</h2><h3 dir="ltr" id="isPasted"><em>Nordic Semiconductor</em></h3><p dir="ltr"><em>We play a key role in the realization of the wireless future. We remain passionately committed to ultra-low-power wireless technology done right. Our award-winning Bluetooth Low Energy solutions pioneered ultra-low power wireless, making us the global market leader. Our technology range was later supplemented by ANT+, Thread, and Zigbee, and in 2018 we launched our low-power, compact LTE-M/NB-IoT cellular IoT solutions to extend the penetration of the IoT. The Nordic portfolio was further complemented by Wi-Fi technology in 2021. Our technology is used by world-leading brands in a wide variety of applications, including wireless PC peripherals, gaming, sports and fitness, mobile phone accessories, consumer electronics, toys, healthcare, and automation.</em></p><h3 dir="ltr"><em><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzE0MTMxNzAwMjA1LWV5SmlkV05yWlhRaU9pSjNaWFp2YkhabGNpMXdjbTlxWldOMExXbHRZV2RsY3lJc0ltdGxlU0k2SW1aeWIyRnNZUzh4TmpjNU9URXhPVFUwTnprMExWVnVkR2wwYkdWa0lHUmxjMmxuYmlBb05Da2dLREVwTG5CdVp5SXNJbVZrYVhSeklqcDdJbkpsYzJsNlpTSTZleUozYVdSMGFDSTZPVFV3TENKbWFYUWlPaUpqYjNabGNpSjlmWDA9LndlYnAiLCJlZGl0cyI6eyJyZXNpemUiOnsid2lkdGgiOjk1MCwiZml0IjoiY292ZXIifX19" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"></em><strong><em>Particle</em></strong></h3><p dir="ltr"><em>Particle provides an integrated IoT Platform-as-a-Service that helps businesses connect, manage, and deploy software applications to connected devices, from edge to cloud and back. Over 240k developers, and 160+ Enterprise customers are building on Particle, from fast-growing startups to Fortune 100 companies.Our expertise goes beyond world-class technology, enabling next-generation business intelligence, insights, and expert customer support to make sure IoT projects succeed. So you can reprogram your business, industry, and the world.</em></p><p dir="ltr"><em><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzE0MTMxNzg0MDAyLWV5SmlkV05yWlhRaU9pSjNaWFp2YkhabGNpMXdjbTlxWldOMExXbHRZV2RsY3lJc0ltdGxlU0k2SW1aeWIyRnNZUzh4TmpVeU9UWTVPRGN4T0RNd0xYQmhjblJwWTJ4bElHSnZkSFJ2YlM1cWNHY2lMQ0psWkdsMGN5STZleUp5WlhOcGVtVWlPbnNpZDJsa2RHZ2lPamsxTUN3aVptbDBJam9pWTI5MlpYSWlmWDE5LndlYnAiLCJlZGl0cyI6eyJyZXNpemUiOnsid2lkdGgiOjk1MCwiZml0IjoiY292ZXIifX19" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"></em><br></p>

Exploring the Trends, Challenges, and Innovations Shaping the Future of Engineering. Complete the survey to enter the prize draw!



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Isolated capacitor, used in electronic devices

This guide explores the crucial factors in capacitor polarity, its mathematical analysis, identification, and advanced practices for improved circuit performance.

Capacitor Polarity: Ensuring Proper Orientation for Optimal Performance

Semiconductors are the building blocks of modern electronics, powering everything from smartphones to satellites. This in-depth guide provides a comprehensive understanding of semiconductors' engineering principles and applications, delving into their fundamental concepts, materials, devices, manufacturing processes, and their impact on today's technology landscape.

What is a Semiconductor? A Comprehensive Guide to Engineering Principles and Applications

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semiconductors

semiconductors

What is a Semiconductor? A Comprehensive Guide to Engineering Principles and Applications

Profiles