As the world struggles to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, researchers are seeking practical, economical ways to capture carbon dioxide and convert it into useful products, such as transportation fuels, chemical feedstocks, or even building materials. But so far, such attempts have struggled to reach economic viability.New research by engineers at MIT could lead to rapid improvements in a variety of electrochemical systems that are under development to convert carbon dioxide into a valuable commodity. The team developed a new design for the electrodes used in these systems, which increases the efficiency of the conversion process.The findings are reported today in the journal&nbsp;Nature Communications, in a paper by MIT doctoral student Simon Rufer, professor of mechanical engineering Kripa Varanasi, and three others.“The CO2 problem is a big challenge for our times, and we are using all kinds of levers to solve and address this problem,” Varanasi says. It will be essential to find practical ways of removing the gas, he says, either from sources such as power plant emissions, or straight out of the air or the oceans. But then, once the CO2 has been removed, it has to go somewhere.A wide variety of systems have been developed for converting that captured gas into a useful chemical product, Varanasi says. “It’s not that we can’t do it — we can do it. But the question is how can we make this efficient? How can we make this cost-effective?”In the new study, the team focused on the electrochemical conversion of CO2 to ethylene, a widely used chemical that can be made into a variety of plastics as well as fuels, and which today is made from petroleum. But the approach they developed could also be applied to producing other high-value chemical products as well, including methane, methanol, carbon monoxide, and others, the researchers say.Currently, ethylene sells for about $1,000 per ton, so the goal is to be able to meet or beat that price. The electrochemical process that converts CO2 into ethylene involves a water-based solution and a catalyst material, which come into contact along with an electric current in a device called a gas diffusion electrode.There are two competing characteristics of the gas diffusion electrode materials that affect their performance: They must be good electrical conductors so that the current that drives the process doesn’t get wasted through resistance heating, but they must also be “hydrophobic,” or water repelling, so the water-based electrolyte solution doesn’t leak through and interfere with the reactions taking place at the electrode surface.Unfortunately, it’s a tradeoff. Improving the conductivity reduces the hydrophobicity, and vice versa. Varanasi and his team set out to see if they could find a way around that conflict, and after many months of work, they did just that.The solution, devised by Rufer and Varanasi, is elegant in its simplicity. They used a plastic material, PTFE (essentially Teflon), that has been known to have good hydrophobic properties. However, PTFE’s lack of conductivity means that electrons must travel through a very thin catalyst layer, leading to significant voltage drop with distance. To overcome this limitation, the researchers wove a series of conductive copper wires through the very thin sheet of the PTFE.“This work really addressed this challenge, as we can now get both conductivity and hydrophobicity,” Varanasi says.Research on potential carbon conversion systems tends to be done on very small, lab-scale samples, typically less than 1-inch (2.5-centimeter) squares. To demonstrate the potential for scaling up, Varanasi’s team produced a sheet 10 times larger in area and demonstrated its effective performance.To get to that point, they had to do some basic tests that had apparently never been done before, running tests under identical conditions but using electrodes of different sizes to analyze the relationship between conductivity and electrode size. They found that conductivity dropped off dramatically with size, which would mean much more energy, and thus cost, would be needed to drive the reaction.“That’s exactly what we would expect, but it was something that nobody had really dedicatedly investigated before,” Rufer says. In addition, the larger sizes produced more unwanted chemical byproducts besides the intended ethylene.Real-world industrial applications would require electrodes that are perhaps 100 times larger than the lab versions, so adding the conductive wires will be necessary for making such systems practical, the researchers say. They also developed a model which captures the spatial variability in voltage and product distribution on electrodes due to ohmic losses. The model along with the experimental data they collected enabled them to calculate the optimal spacing for conductive wires to counteract the drop off in conductivity.In effect, by weaving the wire through the material, the material is divided into smaller subsections determined by the spacing of the wires. “We split it into a bunch of little subsegments, each of which is effectively a smaller electrode,” Rufer says. “And as we’ve seen, small electrodes can work really well.”Because the copper wire is so much more conductive than the PTFE material, it acts as a kind of superhighway for electrons passing through, bridging the areas where they are confined to the substrate and face greater resistance.To demonstrate that their system is robust, the researchers ran a test electrode for 75 hours continuously, with little change in performance. Overall, Rufer says, their system “is the first PTFE-based electrode which has gone beyond the lab scale on the order of 5 centimeters or smaller. It’s the first work that has progressed into a much larger scale and has done so without sacrificing efficiency.”The weaving process for incorporating the wire can be easily integrated into existing manufacturing processes, even in a large-scale roll-to-roll process, he adds.“Our approach is very powerful because it doesn’t have anything to do with the actual catalyst being used,” Rufer says. “You can sew this micrometric copper wire into any gas diffusion electrode you want, independent of catalyst morphology or chemistry. So, this approach can be used to scale anybody’s electrode.”“Given that we will need to process gigatons of CO2 annually to combat the CO2 challenge, we really need to think about solutions that can scale,” Varanasi says. “Starting with this mindset enables us to identify critical bottlenecks and develop innovative approaches that can make a meaningful impact in solving the problem. Our hierarchically conductive electrode is a result of such thinking.”The research team included MIT graduate students Michael Nitzsche and Sanjay Garimella, &nbsp;as well as Jack Lake PhD ’23. The work was supported by Shell, through the MIT Energy Initiative.This work was carried out, in part, through the use of MIT.nano facilities.

A conceptual schematic of the new woven electrode design. Researchers wove a series of conductive copper wires (the brown-orange pipe) through a very thin membrane to reach the catalyst. Image: Courtesy of the researchers, edited by MIT News

A new electrode design boosts the efficiency of electrochemical reactions that turn carbon dioxide into ethylene and other products.

Engineers make converting CO2 into useful products more practical

Developing an economy that produces net zero carbon emissions not only involves “capturing” carbon dioxide but changing it and putting it to use in new forms.&nbsp;Engineers at Washington University in St. Louis are heavily in the business of “carbon conversion” with multiple projects working on systems to pull carbon dioxide in and put it to good use.Most recently, the Department of Energy (DOE) has awarded $29 million in grants for “carbon management” technologies, including $1.5 million of those funds going to&nbsp;<a href="https://engineering.washu.edu/faculty/Xinhua-Liang.html">Xinhua Liang,</a> professor of energy, environmental &amp; chemical engineering in WashU's McKelvey School of Engineering.&nbsp;Previously, Liang&nbsp;<a href="https://engineering.washu.edu/news/2023/Carbon-negative-concrete-products-to-be-formed-from-upcycled-waste.html">received $2 million from the DOE</a> to convert CO2 to concrete products, and this continues that work, with a twist. Liang and his colleagues have developed a thermocatalytic process that could yield useful parts for increasingly ubiquitous lithium-ion batteries that power electric cars and other devices. Liang will fine-tune this process with his co-principal investigator, Miao Yu, a professor in the Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering at the University at Buffalo.&nbsp;The grant will fund Liang’s development of a low-carbon process to convert CO2 to valuable high-quality carbon nanotubes (CNTs). These nanotubes have “similar properties as commercial CNTs,” noted Liang, making them not only useful as potential anodes in batteries but doing so at a much more affordable price, a key component to scaling up these technologies.&nbsp;Lithium-ion batteries are composed of three main components: the anode (negative terminal), cathode (positive terminal) and electrolyte solution in between. The cathodes are typically made of lithium metal oxide, but the anode uses graphite, which is a form of carbon. CNTs are expected to have better performance than graphite as an anode material in lithium-ion batteries. But CNTs can be expensive to apply.But with Liang’s thermocatalytic process, they’ve drastically reduced that expense. They are taking CO2, converting it into an intermediate molecule and then a final conversion to a carbon nanotube with high capacity and high conductivity that makes it ideal for batteries. Carbon nanotubes can also be used in making composite metals and can be used in polymers and concrete products that Liang is also working on.“In order to commercialize this process, there is still a long way to go,” he adds.They will deliver a laboratory-scale prototype system capable of producing 20 grams per day of CNTs, according to the grant. Liang estimates that it could be ready for commercial use in a decade.&nbsp;But so far, they have found a way to lower the cost of CNT production from $100 per kilogram to less than $10.“This is the main advantage of our technology,” Liang said.

A 3D rendering of a carbon nanotube. Carbon dioxide can be turned into carbon nanotubes for use in lithium ion batteries and other potential products. (Image: Shutterstock)

A researcher at Washington University in St. Louis has received a grant of $1.5 million to convert CO2 into carbon nanotubes that could be used in lithium-ion batteries

Converting CO2 to solid carbon yields benefits for batteries and more

A comprehensive technical analysis of PCB prepreg and core materials, examining their distinct material properties, manufacturing implications, and selection criteria for multilayer PCB design. 

PCB Prepreg vs Core Materials: Engineering Guide to Laminate Selection and Properties

By combining visible light and electrochemistry, researchers have enhanced the conversion of carbon dioxide into valuable products and stumbled upon a surprising discovery. The team found that visible light significantly improved an important chemical attribute called selectivity, opening new avenues not only for CO2 conversion but also for many other chemical reactions used in catalysis research and chemical manufacturing.&nbsp;One way that chemists recycle CO2 into valuable products is through a process called electrochemical reduction, where a stream of CO2 gas moves through an electrolysis cell that breaks the CO2 and water down into carbon monoxide and hydrogen, which then can be used to make new desired hydrocarbon products, said University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign <a href="https://chemistry.illinois.edu/">chemistry</a> professor <a href="https://chemistry.illinois.edu/jain">Prashant Jain</a>. “However, the reaction is sluggish, and the process requires large electrodes containing a lot of expensive catalyst material such as gold or copper, so our lab has been pursuing ways to speed up the process so that less catalyst material is required, making it a more viable option for the alternative fuels industry.”The new study, led by Jain and former graduate student Francis Alcorn and published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, details a method that combines the action of visible light with electrodes coated in nanoparticles of gold-copper alloy to induce CO2 reduction at a much higher rate and allow for more controlled selectivity than seen with current methods.&nbsp;“These new electrodes act like tiny antennae that seek out photons in the visible light range and couple them with the chemical reaction pathway,” Jain said.In the lab, the electrodes are immersed in a solution of CO2, water and an electrolyte to enhance conductivity. The team then applies a voltage across the electrode while a visible light laser illuminates its surface. The resulting reaction rapidly produces carbon monoxide — from splitting the CO2 — and hydrogen, which comes from splitting water molecules.&nbsp;“We were very excited to see the boost in productivity when visible light was used. However, we were not expecting to find that using visible light would have a major impact on chemical selectivity, which is the important advance here,” Jain said.&nbsp;In catalysis, chemical selectivity is the ability of a chemical reaction to favor or target one type of pathway or molecule over another. In this study, the researchers found that the water-splitting reaction that forms hydrogen gas was selectively enhanced by using light. This led the team to experiment further and model their results with the help of Northwestern University chemistry professor <a href="https://chemistry.northwestern.edu/people/core-faculty/profiles/george-schatz.html">George Schatz</a> and postdoctoral researcher Sajal Kumar Giri.&nbsp;“The results suggest that visible light offers a unique opportunity to adjust the ratio of carbon monoxide to hydrogen gas produced, a crucial factor for the industrial production of synthetic gas,” Jain said. “This finding paves the way for a more sustainable and efficient energy future.”<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1730418918413-231345.jpg" style="width: 832px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">This graphic shows a map of the charge transfer (yellow for positive and cyan for negative) in the reaction at 25, 26 and 90 femtoseconds. Gold atoms are shown in brown, hydrogen in light pink, carbon in green and oxygen in red. Graphic by the Jain laboratory at Illinois and the Schatz group at Northwestern University.Using light to help boost chemical reactions is not without its controversy, though, Jain said. Because adding light to a chemical reaction will also add heat, it was essential for the team to run careful measurements and control experiments to determine if it was simply the heating effect of light that led to faster reaction rates and selectivity.&nbsp;“We ran experiments with and without the laser at the exact same temperature produced by light excitation and ruled out heating as being responsible,” Jain said. “Rather, electric fields and directed charge flow induced by light excitation were responsible for the enhanced productivity and increased selectivity of water splitting, which is captured in the simulations by our collaborators,” Jain said.&nbsp;The team still has some challenges to face&nbsp;as they forge ahead. For instance, the repeated use of the nanoparticle-based electrode will inevitably lead to degradation over time, especially under a scaled-up scenario&nbsp;required for industrial application. Additionally, the overall energy efficiency of the process and light management will need further research and improvement.“What we found with this study presents completely new ways of thinking about electrochemistry and catalysis,” Jain said. “By using light, we enhance the activity of this catalyst, but surprisingly, we also change the selectivity. This will open up new chemical pathways that make different products. And why stop at CO2 reduction or water splitting? This could be applied to many other catalytic reactions important to the chemical industry.”Illinois Researchers Maya Chattoraj and Rachel Nixon also contributed to this study. The National Science Foundation, the U.S. Department of Energy, the Robert C. and Carolyn J. Springborn Endowment and the Future Interdisciplinary Research Explorations Grant supported this research.&nbsp;

A new study from the University of Illinois captures energy from the visible light spectrum to power up carbon dioxide recycling. Image courtesy the National Science Foundation

By combining visible light and electrochemistry, researchers have enhanced the conversion of carbon dioxide into valuable products and stumbled upon a surprising discovery.

Visible light energy yields two-for-one deal when added to CO2 recycling process

An in-depth review of PCB potting, its applications, materials, technologies, and the AI-powered advancement in potting techniques and material engineering.

PCB Potting: Fortifying Electronics Against Extreme Elements

Unfortunately for engineers, the spec sheet isn't going to tell you everything you need to know about how a material will perform in the real world. Standardized tests from organizations such as ASTM and ISO are designed to be easy to perform and relevant to a broad range of applications and materials. In this regard, they represent a "lowest common denominator" approach. There purpose is the be "standard", not to be the best representation of reality.&nbsp;In this article, I'm going to pick a fight with three standardized tests that are ubiquitous in polymer 3D printing.&nbsp;<h3>1. UTS doesn't matter</h3>Seriously - when was the last time that you broke something by pulling as hard as you can on both ends? The ultimate tensile strength (UTS) is commonly mistaken for real-world strength. Sorry, it simply doesn't matter. There are 3D printing polymers with a UTS of 80 MPa that shatter instantly with any impact, flex, or torsion. That's not strong.&nbsp;UTS is widely reported because its easy to measure. When you do a tensile test, you can get the Young's modulus (aka elastic modulus aka tensile modulus) at the same time as the UTS. The modulus is a geometry-independent, standardized way of assessing the stiffness of a material, which depends on both the material properties and the object's geometry. The UTS is the point at which the stress is highest - for brittle materials, this is when the material fails. For ductile materials, such as polySpectra's Cyclic Olefin Resins, this is when the material begins to yield, undergoing plastic deformation.Because UTS is easy to measure, easy to modulate (with fillers, for example), and easy to understand because every engineer learns about it in school - most 3D printing companies like to boast about their UTS. It's too bad it doesn't bear any resemblance to the real-world strength of 3D-printed parts. From the same tensile test - a more meaningful metric is the toughness, which is the area under the stress-strain curve. But unless you are playing tug-of-war, the tensile toughness isn't actually a true measurement of the materials toughness. For example, some of the 3D printing resins with the highest tensile toughness can be torn with your bear hands, because they have no tear strength.The bottom line is that tensile testing is great for learning about the physics of elastic and viscoelastic materials, and it contains useful information that engineers might need to know while designing components and devices, but for 99% of applications, the UTS has nothing to do with the real-world failure modes of materials. As an engineer - you need to decide what "strength" is most relevant to your application: compressive strength, impact strength, tear strength, flexural strength? The spec sheet won't do that for you.<h3>2. HDT is misleading</h3>The Heat Deflection Temperature, or HDT, is even worse. This is truly a lowest common denominator test that someone designed to be super easy, and for that reason, it's super irrelevant to the real world. The HDT test goes like this: a specific shaped rectangular bar is subjected to a certain force, and when the bar deflects by a certain amount at a certain temperature, that's called the HDT.&nbsp;This has absolutely nothing to do with the true working temperature of a material. The hint that this is irrelevant should come from the fact that there are two different HDTs at two different forces (Method A and Method B), which gives 3D printing companies the opportunity to pick the higher one and report that as their working temperature.The HDT measurement doesn't say anything about what else is happening to that material at that temperature. Without pointing any specific fingers, we've found that many 3D-printed polymers completely degrade during the HDT test. In our work to benchmark other photopolymers, it isn't uncommon for the test specimen to come out of the test looking like a charcoal briquette. So sure, the HDT on the spec sheet is technically true, but it is not representative of the real world working temperature.&nbsp;What might matter more to your application is:<ul><li>Thermal cycling (going between the high and low temperature ranges of the real-world environment)</li><li>Impact strength at low temperature (giving you a better sense of the full temperature failure range)</li><li>Flexural modulus as a function of temperature (providing a better sense of high-temperature failure modes)</li></ul>If you really want to see what is happening to the mechanical properties as a function of temperature, then Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA) is much more appropriate than HDT. But because a DMA trace contains a lot of information, it's also not simple enough to just report a single number and call it a day.&nbsp;Unfortunately, HDT is what everybody puts on the spec sheet, and for the undiscerning engineer, it is commonly passed off as a proxy for working temperature.<h3>3. Notched Izod is not real-world impact</h3>Last but not least, let's talk about the notched Izod impact test. In Izod testing, you hit a bar of a certain size with a pendulum of a known weight and measure the energy that's transferred to the bar by seeing how high the pendulum goes on the other side.Here's the thing about the notching: it's an attempt to do two things:<ul><li>First, it tries to "say more" about the bulk property of the material by pre-creating a defect in the surface for the pendulum to hit.</li><li>Second, it attempts to standardize that defect.</li></ul>When you buy an impact tester, you also get sold the notching machine. If you don't use it correctly, you can get wildly different results. The notching machine needs to be calibrated as much as the impact tester itself.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1729696135686-COR-Black-Impact_400-ezgif.com-optimize%281%29.gif" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">I don't have a problem with the reasoning behind these choices. It makes sense why all of those steps are taken and why that's the necessary way to standardize it. But just like the other two examples, this has absolutely no analog in a real scenario.Notched Izod is the real world equivalent of first slashing something with a knife and then taking an axe and perfectly hitting the exact groove on the surface that you slashed, perfectly putting all of the axe's force inside the notch. If you're actually thinking about impact strength and how something might survive being hit with a blade, nicked by some other component, or shot with a bullet, the unnotched impact strength is much more meaningful.For example, a COR part hanging out in a blender experiences forces that are much more like the unnotched impact test than they are like the notched impact test. This again is something that can be really confusing because we're naturally inclined to just compare things at face value. We might look at some material that we know has a certain notched Izod value, then look at another material with a lower value, and think all of a sudden that it can't possibly be an acceptable replacement. In reality, it certainly could be.As a simple example of this, we were communicating with a team that makes "battle bot" robots, who were completely obsessing over the notched Izod while comparing COR to the materials they're used to. Unfortunately, the notched Izod has very little to do with the real-world resilience to being whacked, slashed, and hacked by another robot's weapons. The blender test does.For impact strength, we've found that our industrial and defense customers often use much less quantitative tests simply because they're a much more reliable indicator of real-world performance:<ul><li>Dropping a bowling ball on a part of a specific geometry from a specific height</li><li>Trying to see if anyone in the room can break the actual part with their bare hands</li><li>Taking a panel to the firing range and shooting it with a gun</li></ul><h3>Conclusion</h3>In summary, there's no substitute for real-world testing. Engineers need to be wary not to take these standardized test proxies at face value. At polySpectra, we specialize in making the world's most rugged photopolymer resins that actually survive demanding real-world environments. Our mission is to help engineers think their ideas into reality.<h3>Ready for Rugged Resin?</h3>Through November 7th, we're running a Kickstarter campaign for our latest material, <a href="https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/polyspectra/cor-zero-turns-makers-into-manufacturers?ref=cwhpga" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">COR Zero</a>, which unlocks manufacturing-grade materials for makers.

Why engineers need to think critically about the materials properties that matter.

The Real World is Not On the Spec Sheet

Machines like the Stratasys Fortus 450mc can process high-temp 3D printer filament (credit: Stratasys)

High-temp 3D printer filaments are challenging to print, but they can be used to make vital end-use parts like automotive components.

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As sustainability requirements, government policies, and consumer demand continue to put pressure on the automotive market, the Dutch automotive industry is finding effective ways of integrating cutting-edge materials and sustainable design practices to redefine the future of mobility.


Design and Materials in the Dutch Automotive Industry: Innovations and Future Directions

<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1728606143829-ezgif-4-5ce7437091.gif" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib" alt="">A new technique could create waterproof coatings for clothes out of discarded textiles – far safer for humans and the environment than current coatings, which are typically made with harsh chemicals and carcinogens.A Cornell research group led by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.human.cornell.edu/people/jh433">Juan Hinestroza</a>, the Rebecca Q Morgan ’60 Professor of Fiber Science and Apparel Design in the College of Human Ecology (CHE), developed the low-temperature technique for synthesis of superhydrophobic, or waterproof, coatings.“If we can save one piece of clothing from going into a landfill, then that will be success,” said Hinestroza, noting that Americans throw away anywhere from 80 to 100 pounds of clothing per person annually.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzI4NjA1ODYyNzY2LWxpcXVpZC1kcm9wbGV0cy13by10ZXh0cy1iLmpwZyIsImVkaXRzIjp7InJlc2l6ZSI6eyJ3aWR0aCI6OTUwLCJmaXQiOiJjb3ZlciJ9fX0=" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">The metal-organic framework (MOF) used in the group’s coating can be synthesized at room temperature, using more environmentally friendly solvents (water and ethanol) and can be achieved without separation or purification of the discarded textiles, both energy-intensive processes.Yelin Ko, a doctoral student in the field of fiber science, is the first author of “<a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsami.4c10459">UiO-66 Inspired Superhydrophobic Coatings Fabricated from Discarded Polyester/Spandex Textiles</a>,” which published Sept. 21 in ACS Applied Materials and Interfaces. Hinestroza is senior author; Tamer Uyar, associate professor of fiber science in the Department of Human Centered Design (CHE), is the other co-author.This research is an extension of work&nbsp;<a href="https://news.cornell.edu/stories/2023/05/upcycling-method-turns-textile-trash-functional-coatings">published in 2023</a> demonstrating that old clothing could be chemically broken down to reuse polyester compounds to create MOF particles with potential applications in fire resistance, anti-bacterial properties, or wrinkle resistance. The new work is taking this proof of concept and applying it in a direct way.In this work, metal-organic frameworks – unique structures pioneered in the 1990s by chemist Omar Yaghi, with whom Hinestroza collaborated on a Department of Defense grant in the late 2000s – were synthesized by chemically decomposing discarded polyester textiles into a heterogenous soup containing molecules of polyester and its monomers, dyes, additives and dirt usually associated with used clothes.The researchers exposed discarded fabrics to an alkaline depolymerization process to produce disodium terephthalate, a known linker for synthesis of UiO-66, a popular MOF. They conducted experiments using different amounts of ethanol, and found that with a small amount of ethanol, UiO-66 assembled on top of a polyester and spandex substrate, exhibited superhydrophobic behavior.The fragments of spandex, the group found, modified the otherwise hydrophilic MOF structure and made it hydrophobic. What’s more, the UiO-66 material was subjected to repeated washing and abrasion, and maintained its water resistance.The group said this technology is one way to reduce the world’s reliance on harmful chemicals in textile manufacturing.“We must find alternatives to fluorinated finishes, also known as ‘forever chemicals,’” Uyar said. “This study demonstrates how we can achieve functional finishes, including&nbsp;water-repellent and self-cleaning properties, by upcycling textile waste instead of relying on ‘forever chemicals.’”The “upcycling” aspect of this work is what’s most important, Hinestroza said.“It’s very easy to blame the brands or blame the producers, but in the end, they will not produce if you don’t consume,” he said. “And whatever is not being consumed is thrown away. And we want to believe that the problem ends in our garbage cans, but it doesn’t.”This research utilized the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ccmr.cornell.edu/">Cornell Center for Materials Research Shared Facilities</a>, which are supported by the National Science Foundation. Other support came from the Fulbright U.S. Student Program, which is sponsored by the U.S. Department of State and the Korean-American Educational Commission.

A new technique could create waterproof coatings for clothes out of discarded textiles – far safer for humans and the environment than current coatings, which are typically made with harsh chemicals and carcinogens.

Waterproof coating is made from upcycled textile waste

A multi-institutional research team led by Georgia Tech’s <a href="https://www.mse.gatech.edu/people/hailong-chen" target="_blank">Hailong Chen</a> has developed a new, low-cost cathode that could radically improve lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) — potentially transforming the electric vehicle (EV) market and large-scale energy storage systems.&nbsp;“For a long time, people have been looking for a lower-cost, more sustainable alternative to existing cathode materials. I think we’ve got one,” said Chen, an associate professor with appointments in the George W. <a href="https://www.me.gatech.edu/" target="_blank">Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering</a> and the <a href="https://www.mse.gatech.edu/" target="_blank">School of Materials Science and Engineering</a>.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1728519667694-Zhantao+sly+smile+device.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Zhantao Liu with the new low-cost cathode that could revolutionize lithium-ion batteries and the EV industry. Photo by Jerry GrilloThe revolutionary material, iron chloride (FeCl3), costs a mere 1-2% of typical cathode materials and canstore the same amount of electricity. Cathode materials affect capacity,&nbsp;energy, and efficiency, playing a major role in a battery’s performance, lifespan, and affordability.“Our cathode can be a game-changer,” said Chen, whose team <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-024-01431-6" target="_blank">describes its work in Nature Sustainability</a>. “It would greatly improve the EV market — and the whole lithium-ion battery market.”First commercialized by Sony in the early 1990s, LIBs sparked an explosion in personal electronics, like smartphones and tablets. The technology eventually advanced to fuel electric vehicles, providing a reliable, rechargeable, high-density energy source. But unlike personal electronics, large-scale energy users like EVs are especially sensitive to the cost of LIBs.&nbsp;Batteries are currently responsible for about 50% of an EV’s total cost, which makes these clean-energy cars more expensive than their internal combustion, greenhouse-gas-spewing cousins. The Chen team’s invention could change that.<h2>Building a Better Battery</h2>Compared to old-fashioned alkaline and lead-acid batteries, LIBs store more energy in a smaller package and power a device longer between charges. But LIBs contain expensive metals, including semiprecious elements like cobalt and nickel, and they have a high manufacturing cost.&nbsp;So far, only four types of cathodes have been successfully commercialized for LIBs. Chen’s would be the fifth, and it would represent a big step forward in battery technology: the development of an all-solid-state LIB.Conventional LIBs use liquid electrolytes to transport lithium ions for storing and releasing energy. They have hard limits on how much energy can be stored, and they can leak and catch fire. But all-solid-state LIBs use solid electrolytes, dramatically boosting a battery’s efficiency and reliability and making it safer and capable of holding more energy. These batteries, still in the development and testing phase, would be a considerable improvement.&nbsp;As researchers and manufacturers across the planet race to make all-solid-state technology practical, Chen and his collaborators have developed an affordable and sustainable solution. With the FeCl3 cathode, a solid electrolyte, and a lithium metal anode, the cost of their whole battery system is 30-40% of current LIBs.&nbsp;“This could not only make EVs much cheaper than internal combustion cars, but it provides a new and promising form of large-scale energy storage, enhancing the resilience of the electrical grid,” Chen said. “In addition, our cathode would greatly improve the sustainability and supply chain stability of the EV market.”<h2>Solid Start to New Discovery</h2>Chen’s interest in FeCl3 as a cathode material originated with his lab’s research into solid electrolyte materials. Starting in 2019, his lab tried to make solid-state batteries using chloride-based solid electrolyteswith traditional commercial oxide-based cathodes. It didn’t go well — the cathode and electrolyte materials didn’t get along.&nbsp;The researchers thought&nbsp;a chloride-based cathode could provide a better pairing with the chloride electrolyte to offer better battery performance.“We found a candidate&nbsp;(FeCl3)&nbsp;worth trying, as its crystal structure is potentially suitable for storing and transporting Li ions, and fortunately, it functioned as we expected,” said Chen.Currently, the most popularly used cathodes in EVs&nbsp;are oxides and&nbsp;require a gigantic amount of costly nickel and cobalt, heavy elements that can be toxic and pose an environmental challenge. In contrast, the Chen team’s cathode contains&nbsp;only&nbsp;iron (Fe) and chlorine (Cl)—abundant, affordable, widely used elements found in steel and table salt.In their initial tests, FeCl3 was found to perform as well as or better than the other, much more expensive cathodes. For example, it has a higher operational voltage than the popularly used cathode LiFePO4 (lithium iron phosphate, or LFP), which is the electrical force a battery provides when connected to a device, similar to water pressure from a garden hose.&nbsp;This technology may be less than five years from commercial viability in EVs. For now, the team will continue investigating FeCl3 and related materials, according to Chen. The work was led by Chen and postdoc Zhantao Liu (the lead author of the study). Collaborators included researchers from Georgia Tech’s Woodruff School (Ting Zhu) and the <a href="https://eas.gatech.edu/home" target="_blank">School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences</a> (Yuanzhi Tang), as well as the <a href="https://www.ornl.gov/" target="_blank">Oak Ridge National Laboratory</a> (Jue Liu) and the <a href="https://uh.edu/" target="_blank">University of Houston</a> (Shuo Chen).“We want to make the materials as perfect as possible in the lab and understand the underlying functioning mechanisms,” Chen said. “But we are open to opportunities to scale up the technology and push it toward commercial applications.”CITATION: Zhantao Liu, Jue Liu, Simin Zhao, Sangni Xun, Paul Byaruhanga, Shuo Chen, Yuanzhi Tang, Ting Zhu, Hailong Chen. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-024-01431-6" target="_blank">“Low-cost iron trichloride cathode for all-solid-state lithium-ion batteries.” Nature Sustainability</a>.

Hailong Chen and Zhantao Liu present a new, low-cost cathode for all-solid-state lithium-ion batteries. Photo by Jerry Grillo

A research team led by Georgia Tech’s Hailong Chen has developed a low-cost iron chloride cathode for lithium-ion batteries, which could significantly reduce costs and improve performance for electric vehicles and large-scale energy storage systems.

New Battery Cathode Material Could Revolutionize EV Market and Energy Storage

Batteries have become so integral to everyday life – powering everything from mobile devices to electric vehicles and renewable energy storage systems – that people often don’t even think about them. But our increasing reliance on batteries has made considerations like their sustainability and ability to hold charge in a range of environments and the ability to reliably source materials needed to produce them urgent considerations.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1728432344954-ezgif-4-fd42337716.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Peng Bai’s research group combines stable sodium metal plated in liquid electrolyte (left) with precisely engineered particles of sodium vanadium phosphate (right) to create safe and efficient sodium batteries. (Image credit: Peng Bai, Rajeev Gopal and Ethan Boutelle / WashU)<a href="https://engineering.washu.edu/faculty/Peng-Bai.html" target="_blank">Peng Bai</a>, associate professor of energy, environmental &amp; chemical engineering in the McKelvey School of Engineering at Washington University in St. Louis, received a two-year, $550,000 Partnerships for Innovation – Technology Translation award from the National Science Foundation to support his work on sodium-based batteries. The award will allow Bai to expand his prior NSF-funded research to scale up and commercialize his sodium battery technology.&nbsp;Bai’s sodium-based batteries deliberately move away from lithium and other rare elements used in traditional batteries. Sodium, a more abundant and easier to process material, promises lower production costs and alleviated supply chain vulnerabilities, fostering a more sustainable and economically efficient energy landscape. Sodium-based batteries may also offer enhanced fast-charging capabilities and improved operation in cold environments, expanding their potential application in large-scale energy storage and portable electronics, including electric vehicles.The project, “<a href="https://www.nsf.gov/awardsearch/showAward?AWD_ID=2431923" target="_blank">Development of high-performance long-life electrodes for sustainable sodium-based batteries</a>,” has three main goals: ensuring consistency in larger production batches, developing greener manufacturing processes using water instead of toxic solvents, and optimizing production processes at a commercial scale. These advancements would pave the way for sodium-based batteries to make their way into everyday technologies within five years, Bai says.

Peng Bai will work toward sustainable and efficient energy storage technology

Beyond lithium: Sodium-based batteries may power the future

<h2 id="isPasted">COR Zero: 4000 Days to Launch</h2>For many innovators, launching a Kickstarter campaign is pretty much "Day 1" of their entrepreneurial journey.&nbsp;For me, <a href="https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/polyspectra/cor-zero-turns-makers-into-manufacturers?ref=cwhpga" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">today's launch</a> is closer to Day 4000.&nbsp;About ten years ago, a mentor told me that it takes at least ten years to bring a new material to market. I was still in graduate school at Caltech and feeling pretty good about my latest invention. I thought to myself "yeah yeah, I bet I can do it in five".This is the story of why it took 4000 days to launch COR Zero, our latest rugged resin that enables you to 3D print truly manufacturing-grade parts in your home workshop.<h3>Caltech&nbsp;</h3>Almost exactly 4000 days ago, the Journal of the American Chemical Society published my paper "<a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/ja4093083" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Photolithographic Olefin Metathesis Polymerization</a>", which described a fundamentally new type of photopolymer resin, based on a mechanism called "olefin metathesis".&nbsp; <img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzI4MjYxMzA3NzgwLTE3MjgyNjEzMDc3ODAucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" class="fr-fic fr-dib">I won't explain why I really wanted my mechanism to be called "PLOMP", but I will share that new chemical mechanisms typically fit squarely into what one might call a "platform technology".&nbsp;Bob Grubbs used to say that they need a different business school for platform technologies, and around this same time, I was also taking my first "business school" courses. Caltech doesn't have a business school, so they flew in instructors to teach high tech entrepreneurship, including the legendary Ed Zschau. (In case you are curious, here is an amazing interview with Ed on the Tim Ferriss Show)<iframe width="640" height="360" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/NqA3a3aXIe8?&amp;wmode=opaque&amp;rel=0&amp;enablejsapi=1&amp;origin=https://www.wevolver.com" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="" class="fr-draggable" data-lf-form-tracking-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-yt-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-vimeo-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</iframe>To put it bluntly: I had a solution, in search of a problem.<h3>Cyclotron Road</h3>In the summer of 2014, I was trying to figure out what I was going to do when I graduated. I had been thinking that I would be a professor, when an application for a brand-new fellowship program called "M37" came out. I had three or four different people send this application link to me, saying I would be a perfect fit. The application was due in a month, and I spent three out of those four weeks thinking this was weird, but I finally decided to apply.Crazy things happened in Berkeley. "M37" became "Cyclotron Road" became "<a href="https://www.activate.org/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Activate</a>". I got to challenge Rick Perry to a 3D-printed wishbone competition and meet Bill Gates. I could write a book about those two years and maybe I will after this Kickstarter is over, but the key skill I started to learn during the fellowship (that they don't teach you in graduate school) is risk management.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1728262604020-rick-perry-wishbone-ezgif.com-optimize.gif" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">We had a solution in search of a problem, a platform technology, and there was a lot of risk involved in bringing it to market.&nbsp;But which market? We decided to go all-in on 3D printing.When we started at Cyclotron Road (now the Activate Fellowship), we really had no idea if PLOMP would work on a 3D printer.&nbsp;There were three reasons that we chose 3D printing. The first was rational: it was a fast-growing market that was mature enough for a startup to find a foothold, but not so mature that the industry had already consolidated. The second reason we chose 3D printing was irrational: we were chasing a Holy Grail.<h3>Chasing The Holy Grail of Polymer 3D Printing</h3>Both the Activate Fellowship and the NSF I-CORPS program forced us to get "out of the lab" and talk to people. I didn't have a problem talking to people. What I quickly learned was that the real skill they don't teach you in graduate school is listening to people.So we set up a lot of meetings and tried to do as much listening as possible. And in these meetings, we were told of a "Holy Grail". The Holy Grail of Polymer 3D Printing.The old-school stereolithography resins were brittle and had low working temperatures. As we were starting to spin polySpectra out of Cyclotron Road, there was starting to be some progress on one or the other, but no one could do both.&nbsp;The problem is that the whole reason that plastics are used ubiquitously is that they have both properties. Thermoplastic parts aren't going to melt or deform in a hot car and they aren't going to shatter if you drop them on the floor. Fused Deposition Modeling could use the same polymers as injection molding, but the process was cursed with poor resolution, a lack of sealed-surfaces, and the infamous "Z-Strength" problem of wildly anisotropic parts (not to mention path-dependent materials properties).The bar is so low, in fact, that unfortunately this slide is still true:<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzI4MjYxMzg0MDA0LTE3MjgyNjEzODQwMDQucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" class="fr-fic fr-dib">So "tough and hot at the same time" was the Holy Grail. That was easy for our olefin metathesis to do, but now we had to figure out how to get our chemistry to work in a 3D printer.This turned out to be really hard. There weren't any open printers available. The Autodesk Ember was the only open printer that we were aware of, but they were unfortunately ahead of their time and, as a software company, couldn't maintain their commitment to a hardware product. Autodesk was our first printer partner, but unfortunately they quickly shuttered the Ember.Initially, our 3D printing resins based on PLOMP (which we named COR for Cyclic Olefin Resin) needed to be printed in a nitrogen atmosphere. We partnered with <a href="https://www.asiga.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Asiga</a> to develop a special gas edition of their Pro 4K printer that could be filled with inert gas and maintain an atmosphere with a specified range of oxygen.Next, we figured out how to make our resins print in air, but then we needed the post-baking process (necessary to achieve our very high working temperatures) to be in a vacuum oven. Eventually, we solved the vacuum oven requirement with <a href="https://polyspectra.ck.page/posts/10x-your-post-bake-speed-with-a-tool-you-already-own" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">waveCure</a>.For the longest time, our resins only worked on 385 nanometer printers. The vast majority of resin printers in the world are at 405 nanometers. A few year ago, we finally figured out how to make it work at 405 nanometers.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzI4MjYxMzk5Njg5LTE3MjgyNjEzOTk2ODkucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" class="fr-fic fr-dib"><h3>Making It Real</h3>In many ways, we did it. Iterating over many years, we Holy-Grailed. Woo!But you might remember that I said there were three reasons that we chose 3D printing as our market. The first was rational - "good market dynamics". The second was irrational - a "Holy Grail" problem our platform technology could solve.&nbsp;The third reason was extremely personal. Spiritual perhaps.Along the way, I realized that this thing I had invented could actually help other people with their inventions. The floodgate keeping "3D printing" from becoming "additive manufacturing" was a materials chemistry problem, and if we could solve that problem, then we could dramatically lower the cost of innovation in durable goods.The mission: empower engineers to make their ideas real with the world's most rugged resins.Now perhaps you can start to see how this comes full circle to Kickstarter.&nbsp;Why do innovators need Kickstarter? Because manufacturing is expensive! Because they need to pay for injection molding tooling!&nbsp;In other words: the kind of engineer that is going to be the most empowered by COR Zero isn't working for GE or GM or Google.&nbsp;The kind of engineer who can make their ideas real 10x- or even 100x-faster with COR than with traditional manufacturing doesn't have a network of contract manufacturers in Asia.&nbsp;The kind of engineer who would be really empowered by this innovation is the kind of engineer that would start a Kickstarter....and unfortunately, for most of the history of polySpectra, we've needed to turn those kinds of people away. This was painful, but the resin simply wasn't safe for individuals to use at home.&nbsp;(I have a much longer safety rant on other 3D printing resins that absolutely should not be allowed to be shipped to residential addresses, but I will try to keep this piece focused on the positive.)<h3>Making COR Safe Enough for At-Home Use</h3>The final innovation that led to COR Zero was all about reducing the safety requirements. We had figured out how to run the process on inexpensive equipment, but unfortunately only if that equipment was in an expensive building.Some back-story: the closest well-known analogs to COR are poly(dicyclopentadiene) thermosets. These high-performance materials have been around for a long time and they played a major role in getting me excited about materials chemistry as an adolescent. (Bullet-proof panels and baseball bats were about the coolest things imaginable to me as a middle-school boy.)While olefin metathesis is safer than photo-radical or cationic polymerizations in many ways, dicyclopentadiene (DCPD) itself has an incredibly low odor detection threshold. The final printed parts are incredibly safe, and you can safely work with DCPD with appropriate PPE and ventilation. However, DCPD is really not something that should be used at home, it demands professional infrastructure and attention to detail. Over our history as a company, we've worked to minimize the amount of DCPD in our formulations, but until recently, we thought it would be impossible to remove completely.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzI4MjYxNjgxMzM3LTE3MjgyNjE2ODEzMzcucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Thankfully, we were wrong. We managed to remove DCPD entirely, there is none in COR Zero. Funny enough, as soon as the dicyclopentadiene was gone, COR Zero became one of the safest resins out there. We're still finalizing the COR Zero SDS, but I frankly can't believe how few hazard statements there will be.However, in order to actually sell COR Zero, we had to figure out how to make a new molecule: tricyclopentadiene (TCPD). TCPD is super safe by comparison, and is even used in fragrances. Depending on who you ask, it has a faint smell of either soap or cilantro, I personally imagine a cilantro powdered detergent.&nbsp;The challenge with TCPD: no one in the world sells it. (If you find someone, let me know ;) )We figured out how to make it, and we've lined up the entire supply chain. Our Kickstarter campaign is all about crowd-sourcing the purchasing power that we need to make COR Zero inexpensive enough for individual innovators.The founding thesis of polySpectra was that the only thing keeping "3D printing" from being true "additive manufacturing" was the materials. For most application areas, I still feel that's true.&nbsp;(Here's a challenge: How many 3D-printed end-use products are in the room or space you are currently in? (I rest my case.))This is why we felt that Kickstarter was the perfect platform to launch COR Zero on. We can now help individual innovators, designers, and engineers make their ideas real.&nbsp;I was thinking about ending this article with "4000 days late is better than never".&nbsp;But COR Zero isn't late. It is right on time.The <a href="https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/polyspectra/cor-zero-turns-makers-into-manufacturers?ref=cwhpga" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">COR Zero Kickstarter launches today</a>, and runs until November 7th. We hope you'll consider supporting us on this journey.<a href="https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/polyspectra/cor-zero-turns-makers-into-manufacturers?ref=cwhpga" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Make it real.</a>**Wevolver receives an affiliate commission for any purchases made by you on the affiliate website using this link. Read more about <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/privacy-policy" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Wevolver’s policy for affiliate links</a>.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzI4MjYyMDc5MzgxLWtpY2tzdGFydGVyLWJhbm5lci5qcGciLCJlZGl0cyI6eyJyZXNpemUiOnsid2lkdGgiOjk1MCwiZml0IjoiY292ZXIifX19" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">

How The COR ZERO Kickstarter campaign aims to revolutionize the 3D printing space by transforming makers into manufacturers.

From Idea to Manufacturing: The Journey to COR ZERO's Launch in the 3D Printing Space

<section id="isPasted">Dr. Yuxuan Cosmi Lin, assistant professor in the Department of Materials Science and Engineering at Texas A&amp;M University, and a team of researchers are studying the potential applications and unique physical properties of semi-metals in electronic devices. &nbsp;&nbsp;This study was recently published in&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s44287-024-00068-z" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Nature Reviews Electrical Engineering</a>. &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Traditionally, microelectronics and electronic materials can be made of three types of material: semiconductors for computing, metals for transducing power and signals, and insulators to isolate different electrical components. &nbsp;&nbsp;A fourth kind of material, semi-metals, may offer a better alternative than the industry standard. Semi-metals are a special kind of material whose properties are in between metals and semiconductors. These materials are significant due to their favorable properties, such as widely tunable electronic energy states, electrical conductivity, and their unique topological properties, which help control the flow of electronic devices like transistors and microchips.&nbsp;&nbsp;Semi-metals are essential components for modern microchip technologies, and semi-metal-based device technologies may offer exceptional computing performance and orders of magnitude reduction in power consumption.&nbsp;&nbsp;In his review article, Lin summarizes and analyzes the potential applications of semi-metals in electronic devices, providing researchers with a comprehensive knowledge resource that guides future research and promotes interdisciplinary collaboration.</section><blockquote>This review helps identify current challenges, suggests potential solutions, serves as an educational resource and an industrial reference, lays a solid foundation for further exploration of semi-metallic technologies, and promotes the development and marketability of new products.<cite>Dr. Yuxuan Cosmi Lin</cite></blockquote><section>“This review summarizes all the research on semi-metals so far, and we have redefined the concept of semi-metals from the definition, classified them, and summarized their applications in electronics according to the classification,” said Lin. “The review article provides a solid foundation and direction for all subsequent research on semi-metals.”&nbsp;&nbsp;According to Lin, these metals can be used in new devices such as transistors, non-volatile memories (memory that can keep power even when power is removed), and on-chip interconnects made with semi-metals and their interfaces with other materials. It also addresses the current issues with semimetals, such as determining how to scale up the processing technologies and how to converge this technology with mainstream silicon technologies, while also detailing the difficulties in finding new semimetals with desired properties in high throughput.&nbsp;&nbsp;“This review helps identify current challenges, suggests potential solutions, serves as an educational resource and an industrial reference, lays a solid foundation for further exploration of semi-metallic technologies, and promotes the development and marketability of new products,” said Lin. &nbsp;&nbsp;Enzi Zhai, a materials science and engineering graduate student, led the effort for this review article. The project was a cross-university effort with Dr. Cong Su’s group at Yale University and Dr. Qiming Shao’s group at Hong Kong University of Science and Technology. The three groups have a long-term collaboration, and each has significantly contributed to different aspects of semi-metal electronics.&nbsp;&nbsp;“This is a great opportunity for us, as well as for the entire research community, to look at the problems from a broader perspective and try better to shape future research areas and technology development targets,” said Lin. “It not only provides a centralized source of knowledge for researchers but also introduces a new material option to those who do not study semi-metals but work on electronic devices while summarizing directions for basic research on semi-metals for their applications in electronics.”&nbsp;</section>

Dr. Yuxuan Cosmi Lin and a team of researchers are studying the advantages of using semi-metals in different applications. 

The Future of Semi-Metal Electronics

Flame test with a lighter on an FDM ULTEM 9085 part

This article delves into flame-retardant plastics typically used to produce parts through 3D printing, CNC machining, and formative manufacturing technologies. It also covers the complexities of flame retardancy and industry standards, such as the UL 94 rating.

Flame Retardant Plastics & UL 94 Flammability Standards In Parts Manufacturing

In this episode, we explore an innovative use of earth-based materials in 3D printing by ETH Zurich researchers to revolutionize the construction industry with sustainable and eco-friendly building techniques to pave the way for greener architecture and sustainable living.

Podcast: 3 Reasons Why You Should Print Your Next Home

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materials

PLA, ABS, and PETG are three of the most popular filaments for FDM 3D printing.

In this article, we look at how three of the most commonly used filaments—PLA, ABS, and PETG—compare in terms of printability, properties, and availability.

PLA vs ABS vs PETG: A Comparison of 3D Printing Filaments

Acrylonitrile Styrene Acrylate (ASA) filament has emerged as a popular choice in 3D printing, particularly for applications demanding both durability and resilience. As a copolymer, ASA combines the properties of acrylonitrile, styrene, and acrylate, resulting in a material that offers superior performance in challenging environments. One of the critical factors influencing ASA’s usability is its glass transition temperature (Tg), which plays a pivotal role in determining the filament's suitability for various applications.The ASA glass transition temperature, typically about 100°C depending on the material and testing process, is a measure of the temperature at which the polymer transitions from a rigid, glassy state to a more flexible, rubbery state.[1] This property is crucial for assessing the material’s thermal stability and its ability to maintain structural integrity under heat. A high Tg indicates that ASA can withstand elevated temperatures without significant deformation, making it an ideal choice for parts exposed to heat or thermal cycles.Additionally, the ASA glass transition temperature affects its performance in outdoor and high-stress environments. The ability of ASA to retain its mechanical properties and resist deformation at elevated temperatures contributes to its suitability for a range of applications, from automotive components to outdoor equipment.[2] This article goes over the basics of ASA glass transition temperature and its relevance to 3D printing.<h2 dir="ltr">What is ASA 3D Printing Filament?</h2><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1724850853776-3d_printed_gears.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib" alt="asa filament">ASA filament is comparable in performance to ABSAcrylonitrile Styrene Acrylate (ASA) is a widely used thermoplastic in FDM/FFF 3D printing, known for its excellent weather resistance, mechanical strength, and UV stability. Often compared to ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene), ASA offers similar strength and durability but with superior resistance to outdoor conditions, making it ideal for applications that require exposure to sunlight or harsh weather.ASA’s UV stability prevents yellowing and degradation, ensuring that parts maintain their color and structural integrity over time. This property makes it a popular choice for automotive components, outdoor fixtures, and any application where prolonged exposure to the elements is a concern. Additionally, ASA is resistant to chemicals and has good impact strength, making it suitable for functional prototypes and end-use parts.In terms of printability, ASA is less prone to warping compared to ABS, although it still requires a heated bed and an enclosed build chamber for optimal results. Its slightly lower shrinkage reduces the risk of warping, but careful attention to bed adhesion and temperature control is necessary to minimize these issues. ASA typically prints at temperatures between 240°C and 260°C, with a heated bed set around 90°C to 110°C. The use of an enclosure helps maintain consistent temperature, reducing the likelihood of warping and cracking.ASA also supports post-processing, such as sanding, painting, and vapor smoothing, allowing for aesthetically pleasing and functional final products. However, one drawback is the emission of fumes during printing, similar to ABS, which requires adequate ventilation.Recommended reading: <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/asa-vs-abs" target="_blank">ASA vs ABS: Finding the right 3D printing filament</a><h2 dir="ltr">ASA Glass Transition Temperature</h2>The glass transition temperature (Tg) of Acrylonitrile Styrene Acrylate (ASA) is around 100°C, depending on the material and the testing process. This is a fairly high glass transition temperature compared to other low-cost 3D printing thermoplastics (but low compared to engineering plastics), making ASA particularly suitable for prototyping and low-risk applications where heat resistance and structural integrity are important.For comparison, ABS, a close relative of ASA, has a Tg of about 105°C, slightly higher than ASA. Both materials behave similarly during printing, requiring heated beds and enclosed chambers to maintain temperatures above their Tg to ensure proper layer adhesion. However, ASA offers better UV and weather resistance, making it the preferred choice for outdoor applications.On the other hand, PLA (Polylactic Acid), another widely used 3D printing material, has a much lower Tg of around 60°C. While PLA is easier to print due to its lower temperature requirements and minimal warping, its lower Tg limits its use in environments where higher temperatures are present. PLA parts can deform or soften under moderate heat, making them unsuitable for outdoor or high-heat applications where ASA would excel.Comparatively, materials like PETG (Polyethylene Terephthalate Glycol) have a Tg around 80°C. PETG offers a good balance between ease of printing and heat resistance but lacks the UV stability of ASA, making ASA a better choice for outdoor parts that must endure sunlight and heat without degrading.ASA’s Tg ensures that printed parts remain structurally stable and retain their mechanical properties in environments that would challenge lower Tg materials. However, designers must still consider ASA's limitations, ensuring that printed parts do not operate in conditions where temperatures exceed 100°C, as this could lead to softening and loss of strength.<h2 dir="ltr">Why Does ASA Glass Transition Temperature Vary?</h2>The glass transition temperature (Tg) of ASA (Acrylonitrile Styrene Acrylate) can vary due to several factors related to its composition and processing conditions. ASA is a copolymer, meaning it is made from multiple monomers—acrylonitrile, styrene, and acrylate.[3] The ratios of these monomers can affect the Tg. Variations in the proportions can lead to differences in the polymer's rigidity and thermal properties.Additionally, the presence of additives or fillers can influence the Tg. These can include impact modifiers, stabilizers, or colorants, each of which can alter the polymer’s thermal behavior. The manufacturing process also plays a crucial role; factors such as polymerization conditions, cooling rates, and thermal history can impact the final Tg. Variability in these conditions can result in slight changes in the Tg from one batch of ASA to another.Finally, the Tg can be affected by the molecular weight of the polymer chains. Higher molecular weight ASA may exhibit a different Tg compared to lower molecular weight variants due to differences in chain entanglement and mobility. Thus, the glass transition temperature of ASA is not fixed but rather a range influenced by its specific formulation and processing history.<h2 dir="ltr">Thermal Properties of Different ASA Filament Brands</h2><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzI0Njk2ODI3Mjk0LVAxNTMzMDk0LTEwMjR4NTc3LmpwZyIsImVkaXRzIjp7InJlc2l6ZSI6eyJ3aWR0aCI6OTUwLCJmaXQiOiJjb3ZlciJ9fX0=" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib" alt="prusament">Part made with Prusament ASA material (image credit:&nbsp;<a href="https://prusament.com/materials/prusament-asa/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Prusament</a>)&nbsp;When 3D printing ASA filament, the ASA glass transition temperature is not necessarily the main property to focus on. This is due to a number of factors, but mainly because the extrusion temperature of a material is closer to its melting point than its glass transition temperature.All filament manufacturers offer recommended printing temperatures for their ASA filament, as well as recommended bed temperatures. But many do not specify the glass transition temperature of the product, as it is less relevant for its end use. The table below shows the slight variations in ASA print settings between filament brands.<div dir="ltr" align="left"><table><tbody><tr><td>Brand</td><td>Glass Transition Temperature</td><td>Recommended Printing Temperature</td><td>Recommended Bed Temperature</td></tr><tr><td>Prusament ASA</td><td>Not specified</td><td>255°C - 265°C</td><td>105°C - 115°C</td></tr><tr><td>FormFutura ApolloX</td><td>98°C</td><td>235°C - 255°C</td><td>80°C - 100°C</td></tr><tr><td>Filamentum ASA extrafill</td><td>Not specified</td><td>240°C - 255°C</td><td>80°C - 105°C</td></tr><tr><td>Polymaker PolyLite ASA</td><td>97.8°C</td><td>240°C - 260°C</td><td>75°C - 95°C</td></tr><tr><td>eSun ASA</td><td>Not specified</td><td>240°C - 270°C</td><td>90°C - 110°C</td></tr></tbody></table></div><h2 dir="ltr">High-Temperature Performance of 3D Printed ASA</h2>3D printed ASA (Acrylonitrile Styrene Acrylate) is known for its good temperature resistance and UV resistance for its price point, making it a preferred material for outdoor and high-temperature applications. This property is also particularly advantageous for parts that undergo thermal cycling.In terms of UV resistance, ASA excels compared to other common 3D printing materials like ABS. ASA’s chemical composition includes a high level of acrylate, which provides better protection against UV degradation. This makes ASA highly resistant to yellowing and physical degradation when exposed to sunlight, ensuring that printed parts retain their mechanical properties and aesthetic appearance over time. The inherent UV stability of ASA is beneficial for outdoor applications, such as automotive parts, construction components, and various outdoor equipment.To enhance the heat resistance of ASA 3D prints, consider the following strategies:<h3 dir="ltr">Optimize Print Settings</h3>Increase the extrusion temperature and print bed temperature to ensure better layer adhesion and reduce internal stresses. A higher nozzle temperature (typically between 240°C and 260°C) ensures the material is fully fused, leading to stronger, more heat-resistant prints. Slower print speeds can also improve inter-layer bonding, contributing to overall thermal stability.<h3 dir="ltr">Annealing</h3>Post-process the ASA print by annealing it in an oven. Heating the print to a temperature just below the glass transition temperature (around 85°C to 95°C) for a few hours can relieve internal stresses and improve the crystallinity of the polymer. This process can enhance the print’s thermal resistance and dimensional stability when exposed to higher temperatures.<h3 dir="ltr">Infill and Wall Thickness Adjustment</h3>Increase the infill percentage and wall thickness to reinforce the print. A denser infill and thicker walls create a more robust structure that can better resist deformation under heat. Additionally, using a higher number of perimeters can enhance the print’s rigidity, making it less susceptible to warping or softening when exposed to elevated temperatures.Recommended reading: <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/what-is-pla-filament-composition-advantages-applications" target="_blank">What is PLA Filament? Composition, Advantages, Applications</a><h1 dir="ltr">Conclusion</h1><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1724850879343-green_car_side_mirror.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib" alt="car">ASA's UV resistance makes it suitable for external car parts like mirror housingsASA's glass transition temperature (Tg) is an important parameter that influences its mechanical, thermal, and chemical properties. Understanding Tg is helpful for optimizing ASA's performance in diverse engineering applications, from automotive exteriors to electronic housings. However, ordinary 3D printer users should focus on a material’s suggested printing temperature rather than its glass transition temperature to achieve a high level of printing performance.<h1 dir="ltr">Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)</h1>What is the ASA glass transition temperature?The glass transition temperature of ASA is around 100°C.What is the ideal printing temperature for ASA?ASA filament prints best at an extrusion temperature of around 250°C and a bed temperature of around 100°C.How does ASA compare to ABS?ASA has a slightly lower glass transition temperature than ABS. It is therefore fractionally less heat resistant but offers superior UV and water resistance.What are some popular ASA filaments?Common ASA filament brands include FormFuture ApolloX, Filamentum ASA extrafill, and Polymaker PolyLite ASA.<h1 dir="ltr">References</h1>[1] Shen MC, Eisenberg A. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0079678667900398" target="_blank">Glass transitions in polymers</a>. Rubber Chemistry and Technology. 1970 Jan 1;43(1):95-155.[2] Berzinis A, Andriuli M. <a href="https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/1999-01-0847/" target="_blank">Weathering performance of black thermoplastic resins for unpainted automotive exterior applications</a>. SAE transactions. 1999 Jan 1:706-15.[3] Breulmann M. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230137160_Synthesis_Properties_and_Applications_of_Acrylonitrile-Styrene-Acrylate_Polymers" target="_blank">Synthesis, Properties and Applications of Acrylonitrile±Styrene±Acrylate Polymers</a>. Modern Styrenic Polymers: Polystyrenes and Styrenic Copolymers. 2003 Mar 1:341.

The ASA glass transition temperature is around 100°C. This makes it slightly easier to print than ABS, while it is also better for outdoor applications due to its good UV resistance.

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