An in-depth review of PCB potting, its applications, materials, technologies, and the AI-powered advancement in potting techniques and material engineering.

PCB Potting: Fortifying Electronics Against Extreme Elements

Unfortunately for engineers, the spec sheet isn't going to tell you everything you need to know about how a material will perform in the real world. Standardized tests from organizations such as ASTM and ISO are designed to be easy to perform and relevant to a broad range of applications and materials. In this regard, they represent a "lowest common denominator" approach. There purpose is the be "standard", not to be the best representation of reality.&nbsp;In this article, I'm going to pick a fight with three standardized tests that are ubiquitous in polymer 3D printing.&nbsp;<h3>1. UTS doesn't matter</h3>Seriously - when was the last time that you broke something by pulling as hard as you can on both ends? The ultimate tensile strength (UTS) is commonly mistaken for real-world strength. Sorry, it simply doesn't matter. There are 3D printing polymers with a UTS of 80 MPa that shatter instantly with any impact, flex, or torsion. That's not strong.&nbsp;UTS is widely reported because its easy to measure. When you do a tensile test, you can get the Young's modulus (aka elastic modulus aka tensile modulus) at the same time as the UTS. The modulus is a geometry-independent, standardized way of assessing the stiffness of a material, which depends on both the material properties and the object's geometry. The UTS is the point at which the stress is highest - for brittle materials, this is when the material fails. For ductile materials, such as polySpectra's Cyclic Olefin Resins, this is when the material begins to yield, undergoing plastic deformation.Because UTS is easy to measure, easy to modulate (with fillers, for example), and easy to understand because every engineer learns about it in school - most 3D printing companies like to boast about their UTS. It's too bad it doesn't bear any resemblance to the real-world strength of 3D-printed parts. From the same tensile test - a more meaningful metric is the toughness, which is the area under the stress-strain curve. But unless you are playing tug-of-war, the tensile toughness isn't actually a true measurement of the materials toughness. For example, some of the 3D printing resins with the highest tensile toughness can be torn with your bear hands, because they have no tear strength.The bottom line is that tensile testing is great for learning about the physics of elastic and viscoelastic materials, and it contains useful information that engineers might need to know while designing components and devices, but for 99% of applications, the UTS has nothing to do with the real-world failure modes of materials. As an engineer - you need to decide what "strength" is most relevant to your application: compressive strength, impact strength, tear strength, flexural strength? The spec sheet won't do that for you.<h3>2. HDT is misleading</h3>The Heat Deflection Temperature, or HDT, is even worse. This is truly a lowest common denominator test that someone designed to be super easy, and for that reason, it's super irrelevant to the real world. The HDT test goes like this: a specific shaped rectangular bar is subjected to a certain force, and when the bar deflects by a certain amount at a certain temperature, that's called the HDT.&nbsp;This has absolutely nothing to do with the true working temperature of a material. The hint that this is irrelevant should come from the fact that there are two different HDTs at two different forces (Method A and Method B), which gives 3D printing companies the opportunity to pick the higher one and report that as their working temperature.The HDT measurement doesn't say anything about what else is happening to that material at that temperature. Without pointing any specific fingers, we've found that many 3D-printed polymers completely degrade during the HDT test. In our work to benchmark other photopolymers, it isn't uncommon for the test specimen to come out of the test looking like a charcoal briquette. So sure, the HDT on the spec sheet is technically true, but it is not representative of the real world working temperature.&nbsp;What might matter more to your application is:<ul><li>Thermal cycling (going between the high and low temperature ranges of the real-world environment)</li><li>Impact strength at low temperature (giving you a better sense of the full temperature failure range)</li><li>Flexural modulus as a function of temperature (providing a better sense of high-temperature failure modes)</li></ul>If you really want to see what is happening to the mechanical properties as a function of temperature, then Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA) is much more appropriate than HDT. But because a DMA trace contains a lot of information, it's also not simple enough to just report a single number and call it a day.&nbsp;Unfortunately, HDT is what everybody puts on the spec sheet, and for the undiscerning engineer, it is commonly passed off as a proxy for working temperature.<h3>3. Notched Izod is not real-world impact</h3>Last but not least, let's talk about the notched Izod impact test. In Izod testing, you hit a bar of a certain size with a pendulum of a known weight and measure the energy that's transferred to the bar by seeing how high the pendulum goes on the other side.Here's the thing about the notching: it's an attempt to do two things:<ul><li>First, it tries to "say more" about the bulk property of the material by pre-creating a defect in the surface for the pendulum to hit.</li><li>Second, it attempts to standardize that defect.</li></ul>When you buy an impact tester, you also get sold the notching machine. If you don't use it correctly, you can get wildly different results. The notching machine needs to be calibrated as much as the impact tester itself.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1729696135686-COR-Black-Impact_400-ezgif.com-optimize%281%29.gif" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">I don't have a problem with the reasoning behind these choices. It makes sense why all of those steps are taken and why that's the necessary way to standardize it. But just like the other two examples, this has absolutely no analog in a real scenario.Notched Izod is the real world equivalent of first slashing something with a knife and then taking an axe and perfectly hitting the exact groove on the surface that you slashed, perfectly putting all of the axe's force inside the notch. If you're actually thinking about impact strength and how something might survive being hit with a blade, nicked by some other component, or shot with a bullet, the unnotched impact strength is much more meaningful.For example, a COR part hanging out in a blender experiences forces that are much more like the unnotched impact test than they are like the notched impact test. This again is something that can be really confusing because we're naturally inclined to just compare things at face value. We might look at some material that we know has a certain notched Izod value, then look at another material with a lower value, and think all of a sudden that it can't possibly be an acceptable replacement. In reality, it certainly could be.As a simple example of this, we were communicating with a team that makes "battle bot" robots, who were completely obsessing over the notched Izod while comparing COR to the materials they're used to. Unfortunately, the notched Izod has very little to do with the real-world resilience to being whacked, slashed, and hacked by another robot's weapons. The blender test does.For impact strength, we've found that our industrial and defense customers often use much less quantitative tests simply because they're a much more reliable indicator of real-world performance:<ul><li>Dropping a bowling ball on a part of a specific geometry from a specific height</li><li>Trying to see if anyone in the room can break the actual part with their bare hands</li><li>Taking a panel to the firing range and shooting it with a gun</li></ul><h3>Conclusion</h3>In summary, there's no substitute for real-world testing. Engineers need to be wary not to take these standardized test proxies at face value. At polySpectra, we specialize in making the world's most rugged photopolymer resins that actually survive demanding real-world environments. Our mission is to help engineers think their ideas into reality.<h3>Ready for Rugged Resin?</h3>Through November 7th, we're running a Kickstarter campaign for our latest material, <a href="https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/polyspectra/cor-zero-turns-makers-into-manufacturers?ref=cwhpga" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">COR Zero</a>, which unlocks manufacturing-grade materials for makers.

Why engineers need to think critically about the materials properties that matter.

The Real World is Not On the Spec Sheet

Machines like the Stratasys Fortus 450mc can process high-temp 3D printer filament (credit: Stratasys)

High-temp 3D printer filaments are challenging to print, but they can be used to make vital end-use parts like automotive components.

High-Temp 3D Printer Filament: Material and Hardware Considerations

As sustainability requirements, government policies, and consumer demand continue to put pressure on the automotive market, the Dutch automotive industry is finding effective ways of integrating cutting-edge materials and sustainable design practices to redefine the future of mobility.


Design and Materials in the Dutch Automotive Industry: Innovations and Future Directions

<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1728606143829-ezgif-4-5ce7437091.gif" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib" alt="">A new technique could create waterproof coatings for clothes out of discarded textiles – far safer for humans and the environment than current coatings, which are typically made with harsh chemicals and carcinogens.A Cornell research group led by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.human.cornell.edu/people/jh433">Juan Hinestroza</a>, the Rebecca Q Morgan ’60 Professor of Fiber Science and Apparel Design in the College of Human Ecology (CHE), developed the low-temperature technique for synthesis of superhydrophobic, or waterproof, coatings.“If we can save one piece of clothing from going into a landfill, then that will be success,” said Hinestroza, noting that Americans throw away anywhere from 80 to 100 pounds of clothing per person annually.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzI4NjA1ODYyNzY2LWxpcXVpZC1kcm9wbGV0cy13by10ZXh0cy1iLmpwZyIsImVkaXRzIjp7InJlc2l6ZSI6eyJ3aWR0aCI6OTUwLCJmaXQiOiJjb3ZlciJ9fX0=" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">The metal-organic framework (MOF) used in the group’s coating can be synthesized at room temperature, using more environmentally friendly solvents (water and ethanol) and can be achieved without separation or purification of the discarded textiles, both energy-intensive processes.Yelin Ko, a doctoral student in the field of fiber science, is the first author of “<a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsami.4c10459">UiO-66 Inspired Superhydrophobic Coatings Fabricated from Discarded Polyester/Spandex Textiles</a>,” which published Sept. 21 in ACS Applied Materials and Interfaces. Hinestroza is senior author; Tamer Uyar, associate professor of fiber science in the Department of Human Centered Design (CHE), is the other co-author.This research is an extension of work&nbsp;<a href="https://news.cornell.edu/stories/2023/05/upcycling-method-turns-textile-trash-functional-coatings">published in 2023</a> demonstrating that old clothing could be chemically broken down to reuse polyester compounds to create MOF particles with potential applications in fire resistance, anti-bacterial properties, or wrinkle resistance. The new work is taking this proof of concept and applying it in a direct way.In this work, metal-organic frameworks – unique structures pioneered in the 1990s by chemist Omar Yaghi, with whom Hinestroza collaborated on a Department of Defense grant in the late 2000s – were synthesized by chemically decomposing discarded polyester textiles into a heterogenous soup containing molecules of polyester and its monomers, dyes, additives and dirt usually associated with used clothes.The researchers exposed discarded fabrics to an alkaline depolymerization process to produce disodium terephthalate, a known linker for synthesis of UiO-66, a popular MOF. They conducted experiments using different amounts of ethanol, and found that with a small amount of ethanol, UiO-66 assembled on top of a polyester and spandex substrate, exhibited superhydrophobic behavior.The fragments of spandex, the group found, modified the otherwise hydrophilic MOF structure and made it hydrophobic. What’s more, the UiO-66 material was subjected to repeated washing and abrasion, and maintained its water resistance.The group said this technology is one way to reduce the world’s reliance on harmful chemicals in textile manufacturing.“We must find alternatives to fluorinated finishes, also known as ‘forever chemicals,’” Uyar said. “This study demonstrates how we can achieve functional finishes, including&nbsp;water-repellent and self-cleaning properties, by upcycling textile waste instead of relying on ‘forever chemicals.’”The “upcycling” aspect of this work is what’s most important, Hinestroza said.“It’s very easy to blame the brands or blame the producers, but in the end, they will not produce if you don’t consume,” he said. “And whatever is not being consumed is thrown away. And we want to believe that the problem ends in our garbage cans, but it doesn’t.”This research utilized the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ccmr.cornell.edu/">Cornell Center for Materials Research Shared Facilities</a>, which are supported by the National Science Foundation. Other support came from the Fulbright U.S. Student Program, which is sponsored by the U.S. Department of State and the Korean-American Educational Commission.

A new technique could create waterproof coatings for clothes out of discarded textiles – far safer for humans and the environment than current coatings, which are typically made with harsh chemicals and carcinogens.

Waterproof coating is made from upcycled textile waste

A multi-institutional research team led by Georgia Tech’s <a href="https://www.mse.gatech.edu/people/hailong-chen" target="_blank">Hailong Chen</a> has developed a new, low-cost cathode that could radically improve lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) — potentially transforming the electric vehicle (EV) market and large-scale energy storage systems.&nbsp;“For a long time, people have been looking for a lower-cost, more sustainable alternative to existing cathode materials. I think we’ve got one,” said Chen, an associate professor with appointments in the George W. <a href="https://www.me.gatech.edu/" target="_blank">Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering</a> and the <a href="https://www.mse.gatech.edu/" target="_blank">School of Materials Science and Engineering</a>.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1728519667694-Zhantao+sly+smile+device.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Zhantao Liu with the new low-cost cathode that could revolutionize lithium-ion batteries and the EV industry. Photo by Jerry GrilloThe revolutionary material, iron chloride (FeCl3), costs a mere 1-2% of typical cathode materials and canstore the same amount of electricity. Cathode materials affect capacity,&nbsp;energy, and efficiency, playing a major role in a battery’s performance, lifespan, and affordability.“Our cathode can be a game-changer,” said Chen, whose team <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-024-01431-6" target="_blank">describes its work in Nature Sustainability</a>. “It would greatly improve the EV market — and the whole lithium-ion battery market.”First commercialized by Sony in the early 1990s, LIBs sparked an explosion in personal electronics, like smartphones and tablets. The technology eventually advanced to fuel electric vehicles, providing a reliable, rechargeable, high-density energy source. But unlike personal electronics, large-scale energy users like EVs are especially sensitive to the cost of LIBs.&nbsp;Batteries are currently responsible for about 50% of an EV’s total cost, which makes these clean-energy cars more expensive than their internal combustion, greenhouse-gas-spewing cousins. The Chen team’s invention could change that.<h2>Building a Better Battery</h2>Compared to old-fashioned alkaline and lead-acid batteries, LIBs store more energy in a smaller package and power a device longer between charges. But LIBs contain expensive metals, including semiprecious elements like cobalt and nickel, and they have a high manufacturing cost.&nbsp;So far, only four types of cathodes have been successfully commercialized for LIBs. Chen’s would be the fifth, and it would represent a big step forward in battery technology: the development of an all-solid-state LIB.Conventional LIBs use liquid electrolytes to transport lithium ions for storing and releasing energy. They have hard limits on how much energy can be stored, and they can leak and catch fire. But all-solid-state LIBs use solid electrolytes, dramatically boosting a battery’s efficiency and reliability and making it safer and capable of holding more energy. These batteries, still in the development and testing phase, would be a considerable improvement.&nbsp;As researchers and manufacturers across the planet race to make all-solid-state technology practical, Chen and his collaborators have developed an affordable and sustainable solution. With the FeCl3 cathode, a solid electrolyte, and a lithium metal anode, the cost of their whole battery system is 30-40% of current LIBs.&nbsp;“This could not only make EVs much cheaper than internal combustion cars, but it provides a new and promising form of large-scale energy storage, enhancing the resilience of the electrical grid,” Chen said. “In addition, our cathode would greatly improve the sustainability and supply chain stability of the EV market.”<h2>Solid Start to New Discovery</h2>Chen’s interest in FeCl3 as a cathode material originated with his lab’s research into solid electrolyte materials. Starting in 2019, his lab tried to make solid-state batteries using chloride-based solid electrolyteswith traditional commercial oxide-based cathodes. It didn’t go well — the cathode and electrolyte materials didn’t get along.&nbsp;The researchers thought&nbsp;a chloride-based cathode could provide a better pairing with the chloride electrolyte to offer better battery performance.“We found a candidate&nbsp;(FeCl3)&nbsp;worth trying, as its crystal structure is potentially suitable for storing and transporting Li ions, and fortunately, it functioned as we expected,” said Chen.Currently, the most popularly used cathodes in EVs&nbsp;are oxides and&nbsp;require a gigantic amount of costly nickel and cobalt, heavy elements that can be toxic and pose an environmental challenge. In contrast, the Chen team’s cathode contains&nbsp;only&nbsp;iron (Fe) and chlorine (Cl)—abundant, affordable, widely used elements found in steel and table salt.In their initial tests, FeCl3 was found to perform as well as or better than the other, much more expensive cathodes. For example, it has a higher operational voltage than the popularly used cathode LiFePO4 (lithium iron phosphate, or LFP), which is the electrical force a battery provides when connected to a device, similar to water pressure from a garden hose.&nbsp;This technology may be less than five years from commercial viability in EVs. For now, the team will continue investigating FeCl3 and related materials, according to Chen. The work was led by Chen and postdoc Zhantao Liu (the lead author of the study). Collaborators included researchers from Georgia Tech’s Woodruff School (Ting Zhu) and the <a href="https://eas.gatech.edu/home" target="_blank">School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences</a> (Yuanzhi Tang), as well as the <a href="https://www.ornl.gov/" target="_blank">Oak Ridge National Laboratory</a> (Jue Liu) and the <a href="https://uh.edu/" target="_blank">University of Houston</a> (Shuo Chen).“We want to make the materials as perfect as possible in the lab and understand the underlying functioning mechanisms,” Chen said. “But we are open to opportunities to scale up the technology and push it toward commercial applications.”CITATION: Zhantao Liu, Jue Liu, Simin Zhao, Sangni Xun, Paul Byaruhanga, Shuo Chen, Yuanzhi Tang, Ting Zhu, Hailong Chen. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-024-01431-6" target="_blank">“Low-cost iron trichloride cathode for all-solid-state lithium-ion batteries.” Nature Sustainability</a>.

Hailong Chen and Zhantao Liu present a new, low-cost cathode for all-solid-state lithium-ion batteries. Photo by Jerry Grillo

A research team led by Georgia Tech’s Hailong Chen has developed a low-cost iron chloride cathode for lithium-ion batteries, which could significantly reduce costs and improve performance for electric vehicles and large-scale energy storage systems.

New Battery Cathode Material Could Revolutionize EV Market and Energy Storage

Batteries have become so integral to everyday life – powering everything from mobile devices to electric vehicles and renewable energy storage systems – that people often don’t even think about them. But our increasing reliance on batteries has made considerations like their sustainability and ability to hold charge in a range of environments and the ability to reliably source materials needed to produce them urgent considerations.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1728432344954-ezgif-4-fd42337716.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Peng Bai’s research group combines stable sodium metal plated in liquid electrolyte (left) with precisely engineered particles of sodium vanadium phosphate (right) to create safe and efficient sodium batteries. (Image credit: Peng Bai, Rajeev Gopal and Ethan Boutelle / WashU)<a href="https://engineering.washu.edu/faculty/Peng-Bai.html" target="_blank">Peng Bai</a>, associate professor of energy, environmental &amp; chemical engineering in the McKelvey School of Engineering at Washington University in St. Louis, received a two-year, $550,000 Partnerships for Innovation – Technology Translation award from the National Science Foundation to support his work on sodium-based batteries. The award will allow Bai to expand his prior NSF-funded research to scale up and commercialize his sodium battery technology.&nbsp;Bai’s sodium-based batteries deliberately move away from lithium and other rare elements used in traditional batteries. Sodium, a more abundant and easier to process material, promises lower production costs and alleviated supply chain vulnerabilities, fostering a more sustainable and economically efficient energy landscape. Sodium-based batteries may also offer enhanced fast-charging capabilities and improved operation in cold environments, expanding their potential application in large-scale energy storage and portable electronics, including electric vehicles.The project, “<a href="https://www.nsf.gov/awardsearch/showAward?AWD_ID=2431923" target="_blank">Development of high-performance long-life electrodes for sustainable sodium-based batteries</a>,” has three main goals: ensuring consistency in larger production batches, developing greener manufacturing processes using water instead of toxic solvents, and optimizing production processes at a commercial scale. These advancements would pave the way for sodium-based batteries to make their way into everyday technologies within five years, Bai says.

Peng Bai will work toward sustainable and efficient energy storage technology

Beyond lithium: Sodium-based batteries may power the future

<h2 id="isPasted">COR Zero: 4000 Days to Launch</h2>For many innovators, launching a Kickstarter campaign is pretty much "Day 1" of their entrepreneurial journey.&nbsp;For me, <a href="https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/polyspectra/cor-zero-turns-makers-into-manufacturers?ref=cwhpga" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">today's launch</a> is closer to Day 4000.&nbsp;About ten years ago, a mentor told me that it takes at least ten years to bring a new material to market. I was still in graduate school at Caltech and feeling pretty good about my latest invention. I thought to myself "yeah yeah, I bet I can do it in five".This is the story of why it took 4000 days to launch COR Zero, our latest rugged resin that enables you to 3D print truly manufacturing-grade parts in your home workshop.<h3>Caltech&nbsp;</h3>Almost exactly 4000 days ago, the Journal of the American Chemical Society published my paper "<a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/ja4093083" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Photolithographic Olefin Metathesis Polymerization</a>", which described a fundamentally new type of photopolymer resin, based on a mechanism called "olefin metathesis".&nbsp; <img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzI4MjYxMzA3NzgwLTE3MjgyNjEzMDc3ODAucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" class="fr-fic fr-dib">I won't explain why I really wanted my mechanism to be called "PLOMP", but I will share that new chemical mechanisms typically fit squarely into what one might call a "platform technology".&nbsp;Bob Grubbs used to say that they need a different business school for platform technologies, and around this same time, I was also taking my first "business school" courses. Caltech doesn't have a business school, so they flew in instructors to teach high tech entrepreneurship, including the legendary Ed Zschau. (In case you are curious, here is an amazing interview with Ed on the Tim Ferriss Show)<iframe width="640" height="360" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/NqA3a3aXIe8?&amp;wmode=opaque&amp;rel=0&amp;enablejsapi=1&amp;origin=https://www.wevolver.com" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="" class="fr-draggable" data-lf-form-tracking-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-yt-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-vimeo-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</iframe>To put it bluntly: I had a solution, in search of a problem.<h3>Cyclotron Road</h3>In the summer of 2014, I was trying to figure out what I was going to do when I graduated. I had been thinking that I would be a professor, when an application for a brand-new fellowship program called "M37" came out. I had three or four different people send this application link to me, saying I would be a perfect fit. The application was due in a month, and I spent three out of those four weeks thinking this was weird, but I finally decided to apply.Crazy things happened in Berkeley. "M37" became "Cyclotron Road" became "<a href="https://www.activate.org/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Activate</a>". I got to challenge Rick Perry to a 3D-printed wishbone competition and meet Bill Gates. I could write a book about those two years and maybe I will after this Kickstarter is over, but the key skill I started to learn during the fellowship (that they don't teach you in graduate school) is risk management.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1728262604020-rick-perry-wishbone-ezgif.com-optimize.gif" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">We had a solution in search of a problem, a platform technology, and there was a lot of risk involved in bringing it to market.&nbsp;But which market? We decided to go all-in on 3D printing.When we started at Cyclotron Road (now the Activate Fellowship), we really had no idea if PLOMP would work on a 3D printer.&nbsp;There were three reasons that we chose 3D printing. The first was rational: it was a fast-growing market that was mature enough for a startup to find a foothold, but not so mature that the industry had already consolidated. The second reason we chose 3D printing was irrational: we were chasing a Holy Grail.<h3>Chasing The Holy Grail of Polymer 3D Printing</h3>Both the Activate Fellowship and the NSF I-CORPS program forced us to get "out of the lab" and talk to people. I didn't have a problem talking to people. What I quickly learned was that the real skill they don't teach you in graduate school is listening to people.So we set up a lot of meetings and tried to do as much listening as possible. And in these meetings, we were told of a "Holy Grail". The Holy Grail of Polymer 3D Printing.The old-school stereolithography resins were brittle and had low working temperatures. As we were starting to spin polySpectra out of Cyclotron Road, there was starting to be some progress on one or the other, but no one could do both.&nbsp;The problem is that the whole reason that plastics are used ubiquitously is that they have both properties. Thermoplastic parts aren't going to melt or deform in a hot car and they aren't going to shatter if you drop them on the floor. Fused Deposition Modeling could use the same polymers as injection molding, but the process was cursed with poor resolution, a lack of sealed-surfaces, and the infamous "Z-Strength" problem of wildly anisotropic parts (not to mention path-dependent materials properties).The bar is so low, in fact, that unfortunately this slide is still true:<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzI4MjYxMzg0MDA0LTE3MjgyNjEzODQwMDQucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" class="fr-fic fr-dib">So "tough and hot at the same time" was the Holy Grail. That was easy for our olefin metathesis to do, but now we had to figure out how to get our chemistry to work in a 3D printer.This turned out to be really hard. There weren't any open printers available. The Autodesk Ember was the only open printer that we were aware of, but they were unfortunately ahead of their time and, as a software company, couldn't maintain their commitment to a hardware product. Autodesk was our first printer partner, but unfortunately they quickly shuttered the Ember.Initially, our 3D printing resins based on PLOMP (which we named COR for Cyclic Olefin Resin) needed to be printed in a nitrogen atmosphere. We partnered with <a href="https://www.asiga.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Asiga</a> to develop a special gas edition of their Pro 4K printer that could be filled with inert gas and maintain an atmosphere with a specified range of oxygen.Next, we figured out how to make our resins print in air, but then we needed the post-baking process (necessary to achieve our very high working temperatures) to be in a vacuum oven. Eventually, we solved the vacuum oven requirement with <a href="https://polyspectra.ck.page/posts/10x-your-post-bake-speed-with-a-tool-you-already-own" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">waveCure</a>.For the longest time, our resins only worked on 385 nanometer printers. The vast majority of resin printers in the world are at 405 nanometers. A few year ago, we finally figured out how to make it work at 405 nanometers.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzI4MjYxMzk5Njg5LTE3MjgyNjEzOTk2ODkucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" class="fr-fic fr-dib"><h3>Making It Real</h3>In many ways, we did it. Iterating over many years, we Holy-Grailed. Woo!But you might remember that I said there were three reasons that we chose 3D printing as our market. The first was rational - "good market dynamics". The second was irrational - a "Holy Grail" problem our platform technology could solve.&nbsp;The third reason was extremely personal. Spiritual perhaps.Along the way, I realized that this thing I had invented could actually help other people with their inventions. The floodgate keeping "3D printing" from becoming "additive manufacturing" was a materials chemistry problem, and if we could solve that problem, then we could dramatically lower the cost of innovation in durable goods.The mission: empower engineers to make their ideas real with the world's most rugged resins.Now perhaps you can start to see how this comes full circle to Kickstarter.&nbsp;Why do innovators need Kickstarter? Because manufacturing is expensive! Because they need to pay for injection molding tooling!&nbsp;In other words: the kind of engineer that is going to be the most empowered by COR Zero isn't working for GE or GM or Google.&nbsp;The kind of engineer who can make their ideas real 10x- or even 100x-faster with COR than with traditional manufacturing doesn't have a network of contract manufacturers in Asia.&nbsp;The kind of engineer who would be really empowered by this innovation is the kind of engineer that would start a Kickstarter....and unfortunately, for most of the history of polySpectra, we've needed to turn those kinds of people away. This was painful, but the resin simply wasn't safe for individuals to use at home.&nbsp;(I have a much longer safety rant on other 3D printing resins that absolutely should not be allowed to be shipped to residential addresses, but I will try to keep this piece focused on the positive.)<h3>Making COR Safe Enough for At-Home Use</h3>The final innovation that led to COR Zero was all about reducing the safety requirements. We had figured out how to run the process on inexpensive equipment, but unfortunately only if that equipment was in an expensive building.Some back-story: the closest well-known analogs to COR are poly(dicyclopentadiene) thermosets. These high-performance materials have been around for a long time and they played a major role in getting me excited about materials chemistry as an adolescent. (Bullet-proof panels and baseball bats were about the coolest things imaginable to me as a middle-school boy.)While olefin metathesis is safer than photo-radical or cationic polymerizations in many ways, dicyclopentadiene (DCPD) itself has an incredibly low odor detection threshold. The final printed parts are incredibly safe, and you can safely work with DCPD with appropriate PPE and ventilation. However, DCPD is really not something that should be used at home, it demands professional infrastructure and attention to detail. Over our history as a company, we've worked to minimize the amount of DCPD in our formulations, but until recently, we thought it would be impossible to remove completely.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzI4MjYxNjgxMzM3LTE3MjgyNjE2ODEzMzcucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Thankfully, we were wrong. We managed to remove DCPD entirely, there is none in COR Zero. Funny enough, as soon as the dicyclopentadiene was gone, COR Zero became one of the safest resins out there. We're still finalizing the COR Zero SDS, but I frankly can't believe how few hazard statements there will be.However, in order to actually sell COR Zero, we had to figure out how to make a new molecule: tricyclopentadiene (TCPD). TCPD is super safe by comparison, and is even used in fragrances. Depending on who you ask, it has a faint smell of either soap or cilantro, I personally imagine a cilantro powdered detergent.&nbsp;The challenge with TCPD: no one in the world sells it. (If you find someone, let me know ;) )We figured out how to make it, and we've lined up the entire supply chain. Our Kickstarter campaign is all about crowd-sourcing the purchasing power that we need to make COR Zero inexpensive enough for individual innovators.The founding thesis of polySpectra was that the only thing keeping "3D printing" from being true "additive manufacturing" was the materials. For most application areas, I still feel that's true.&nbsp;(Here's a challenge: How many 3D-printed end-use products are in the room or space you are currently in? (I rest my case.))This is why we felt that Kickstarter was the perfect platform to launch COR Zero on. We can now help individual innovators, designers, and engineers make their ideas real.&nbsp;I was thinking about ending this article with "4000 days late is better than never".&nbsp;But COR Zero isn't late. It is right on time.The <a href="https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/polyspectra/cor-zero-turns-makers-into-manufacturers?ref=cwhpga" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">COR Zero Kickstarter launches today</a>, and runs until November 7th. We hope you'll consider supporting us on this journey.<a href="https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/polyspectra/cor-zero-turns-makers-into-manufacturers?ref=cwhpga" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Make it real.</a>**Wevolver receives an affiliate commission for any purchases made by you on the affiliate website using this link. Read more about <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/privacy-policy" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Wevolver’s policy for affiliate links</a>.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzI4MjYyMDc5MzgxLWtpY2tzdGFydGVyLWJhbm5lci5qcGciLCJlZGl0cyI6eyJyZXNpemUiOnsid2lkdGgiOjk1MCwiZml0IjoiY292ZXIifX19" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">

How The COR ZERO Kickstarter campaign aims to revolutionize the 3D printing space by transforming makers into manufacturers.

From Idea to Manufacturing: The Journey to COR ZERO's Launch in the 3D Printing Space

<section id="isPasted">Dr. Yuxuan Cosmi Lin, assistant professor in the Department of Materials Science and Engineering at Texas A&amp;M University, and a team of researchers are studying the potential applications and unique physical properties of semi-metals in electronic devices. &nbsp;&nbsp;This study was recently published in&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s44287-024-00068-z" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Nature Reviews Electrical Engineering</a>. &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Traditionally, microelectronics and electronic materials can be made of three types of material: semiconductors for computing, metals for transducing power and signals, and insulators to isolate different electrical components. &nbsp;&nbsp;A fourth kind of material, semi-metals, may offer a better alternative than the industry standard. Semi-metals are a special kind of material whose properties are in between metals and semiconductors. These materials are significant due to their favorable properties, such as widely tunable electronic energy states, electrical conductivity, and their unique topological properties, which help control the flow of electronic devices like transistors and microchips.&nbsp;&nbsp;Semi-metals are essential components for modern microchip technologies, and semi-metal-based device technologies may offer exceptional computing performance and orders of magnitude reduction in power consumption.&nbsp;&nbsp;In his review article, Lin summarizes and analyzes the potential applications of semi-metals in electronic devices, providing researchers with a comprehensive knowledge resource that guides future research and promotes interdisciplinary collaboration.</section><blockquote>This review helps identify current challenges, suggests potential solutions, serves as an educational resource and an industrial reference, lays a solid foundation for further exploration of semi-metallic technologies, and promotes the development and marketability of new products.<cite>Dr. Yuxuan Cosmi Lin</cite></blockquote><section>“This review summarizes all the research on semi-metals so far, and we have redefined the concept of semi-metals from the definition, classified them, and summarized their applications in electronics according to the classification,” said Lin. “The review article provides a solid foundation and direction for all subsequent research on semi-metals.”&nbsp;&nbsp;According to Lin, these metals can be used in new devices such as transistors, non-volatile memories (memory that can keep power even when power is removed), and on-chip interconnects made with semi-metals and their interfaces with other materials. It also addresses the current issues with semimetals, such as determining how to scale up the processing technologies and how to converge this technology with mainstream silicon technologies, while also detailing the difficulties in finding new semimetals with desired properties in high throughput.&nbsp;&nbsp;“This review helps identify current challenges, suggests potential solutions, serves as an educational resource and an industrial reference, lays a solid foundation for further exploration of semi-metallic technologies, and promotes the development and marketability of new products,” said Lin. &nbsp;&nbsp;Enzi Zhai, a materials science and engineering graduate student, led the effort for this review article. The project was a cross-university effort with Dr. Cong Su’s group at Yale University and Dr. Qiming Shao’s group at Hong Kong University of Science and Technology. The three groups have a long-term collaboration, and each has significantly contributed to different aspects of semi-metal electronics.&nbsp;&nbsp;“This is a great opportunity for us, as well as for the entire research community, to look at the problems from a broader perspective and try better to shape future research areas and technology development targets,” said Lin. “It not only provides a centralized source of knowledge for researchers but also introduces a new material option to those who do not study semi-metals but work on electronic devices while summarizing directions for basic research on semi-metals for their applications in electronics.”&nbsp;</section>

Dr. Yuxuan Cosmi Lin and a team of researchers are studying the advantages of using semi-metals in different applications. 

The Future of Semi-Metal Electronics

Flame test with a lighter on an FDM ULTEM 9085 part

This article delves into flame-retardant plastics typically used to produce parts through 3D printing, CNC machining, and formative manufacturing technologies. It also covers the complexities of flame retardancy and industry standards, such as the UL 94 rating.

Flame Retardant Plastics & UL 94 Flammability Standards In Parts Manufacturing

In this episode, we explore an innovative use of earth-based materials in 3D printing by ETH Zurich researchers to revolutionize the construction industry with sustainable and eco-friendly building techniques to pave the way for greener architecture and sustainable living.

Podcast: 3 Reasons Why You Should Print Your Next Home

Even a perfectly designed injection-moulded part can fail if manufactured from the wrong material, and with literally <a href="https://www.protolabs.com/en-gb/materials/comparison-guide/?utm_source=wevolver &utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=uk-design-tip-0924&utm_content=wevolver-0924" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">hundreds of thermoplastics and elastomers</a> to choose from, it’s often difficult to know which ones will meet the application’s requirements. This is why a host of factors such as mechanical strength, chemical and ultraviolet light resistance, lubricity, wear resistance, and more must be carefully considered when selecting materials for injection moulding. &nbsp;This situation becomes even more challenging with overmoulded parts, where designers must not only adhere more closely to established moulding principles, but also make certain that the chemical and physical bonds between their chosen materials are both strong and permanent. This tip discusses three key areas—material compatibility, adhesion, and tribology—that designers should be knowledgeable about when designing moulded parts.<h3>Friction and Wear</h3>Let’s start with a term not often heard on the manufacturing floor. Tribology is the study of friction and wear that occurs between two surfaces moving relative to one another. It concerns the interaction between the interlocking clips and tabs of a snap-fit container, for example. An engineer looking at the tribology of parts would probably care less about the chemical and mechanical bonds needed to overmould a handle for a power tool (because they don’t slide against one another, assuming the design is sound), and more about the feel and grippability of the overmoulding material itself.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzI3MTgyMzMxMDM5LTE3MjcxODIzMzEwMzkucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" class="fr-fic fr-dib" style="width: 756px;">These plastic gears moving together show how a part design can be influenced by the friction and wear that occurs between surfaces interacting with one another, an important element to consider when selecting materials for your moulded parts.In the snap fit clip example, a wear-resistant polymer such as HDPE might be a good choice, although a relatively lubricious material like acetal could also be a candidate. Both materials have their own unique virtues that should be carefully weighed early in the development process. Yet the product design itself can also play a huge tribological factor. Surfaces that interact with one another should be smooth, lest the miniature peaks and valleys found on rougher surfaces catch and break away with repeated use.The method used to manufacture the part also plays a role. In the clip example, which can easily extend to any number of plastic parts with mating or interlocking surfaces, a machined finish is different than a 3D-printed one, as is an injection-moulded surface (and is likely to be smoother than either). The message here is that these and other part characteristics should be carefully analysed and tested before traveling too far down the design road when part interaction is a design concern.Here’s another example. Metal inserts are a popular option at Protolabs. Whether you need a bronze bushing in an injection-moulded fan blade, a stainless steel sleeve in a plastic pulley, or a threaded brass nut in an equipment knob, placing these and other inserts in injection-moulded parts is no big deal. There’s little concern over material compatibility, and the biggest obstacle the designer will face is making sure that a good mechanical bond is created when the plastic is injected over and around the insert. That said, bronze and brass make for good, low-cost bearing surfaces, but are more prone to wear than an actual ball-bearing. Ask yourself this: Does your design meet the product’s long-term requirements? A good understanding of tribology will help resolve this and other important questions.<h3 id="isPasted">Material Compatibility</h3>Few would argue that overmoulding is one of the coolest things to happen to plastic parts since quick-turn injection moulds. It’s a great option anywhere a soft or user-friendly material is needed atop a structural core—an instrument handle, perhaps, or handheld electronics housing—or where multiple colours are desired for aesthetic reasons. There’s plenty of information online about <a href="https://www.protolabs.com/en-gb/resources/design-tips/designing-for-overmoulding/?utm_source=wevolver&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=uk-design-tip-0924&utm_content=wevolver-0924" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">designing for the overmoulding process</a>, discussing the need for a sound mechanical bond as well as chemical compatibility between the two adjoining materials.The good news is that a host of chemically compatible materials are available. For instance, Protolabs offers TPV Sarlink 3170 a thermoplastic elastomer that forms a strong chemical bond with polypropylene. There’s TPC Hytrel 4068 a thermoplastic elastomer that mates up just fine with ABS, polycarbonate, and more. Nylon, on the other hand, is among the more difficult substrates for overmoulding due to its moisture-absorbing tendencies, though it remains a popular material across a range of applications.<h3 id="isPasted">Adhesion</h3>There’s more to it than that, however. Part design can have a significant effect on the adhesion level of overmoulded parts. The transition between substrate and overlay should be abrupt to avoid feathering or thinning—consider using a groove or shoulder to create a clear cut off point. Curling and potential tear points can be eliminated by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.protolabs.com/en-gb/resources/design-tips/incorporating-shut-offs-in-injection-moulding-design/?utm_source=wevolver&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=uk-design-tip-0924&utm_content=wevolver-0924" title="Incorporating Shut-offs in Injection Moulding Design" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">placing the shutoff</a> in a location that creates a hard stop for soft, squishy, and very flowable TPE. Use too thin of an overlay—say anything less than 1/16-inch thick—and the material may cool too quickly for proper adhesion. Long length-to-thickness ratios can cause similar problems.Also, be aware of the two materials’ unique thermal characteristics when overmoulding. You might select<a href="https://www.protolabs.com/en-gb/services/injection-moulding/liquid-silicone-rubber/?utm_source=wevolver&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=uk-design-tip-0924&utm_content=wevolver-0924" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">&nbsp;liquid silicone rubber (LSR)</a> for its excellent heat and chemical resistance, low-temperature flexibility, and inherent lubricity, but keep in mind that LSR cures at 150 to 200 degrees centigrade, a temperature too high for ABS, polyethylene, polypropylene, and a number of other thermoplastics to survive. Venting is also important, as burning, insufficient adhesion, and incomplete cavity filling—short shots—can occur in an improperly vented mould.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzI3MTgyNDMwNzU2LTE3MjcxODI0MzA3NTYucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" class="fr-fic fr-dib" style="width: 761px;">Chemical adhesion of overmoulded parts is tricky. The transition between substrate and overlay should be abrupt to avoid feathering/thinning. Use a groove or shoulder to create a cutoff point. Curling and tear points can be eliminated by placing the shutoff in a location that creates a hard stop for soft, flowable TPE. Figure at left shows the substrate in gray and the TPE and potential curling in blue. At right, substrate is gray and TPE is yellow, with the shutoff shown stopping the TPE.It’s easy enough to check the<a href="https://www.protolabs.com/en-gb/services/injection-moulding/overmoulding-and-insert-moulding/#Design_Guidelines:_Overmoulding_Insert_Moulding?utm_source=wevolver&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=uk-design-tip-0924&utm_content=wevolver-0924" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">&nbsp;compatibility chart</a> online, but if you prefer to supply your own material, it might be best to check with your plastics supplier for moulding and application advice. This is especially true if you’re using a custom polymer mix, which an increasing number of Protolabs’ customers do. Be aware that colourants can create adhesion problems, as can high amounts of additives such as metal and glass. Our advice is to always run a few sample parts and test thoroughly before pulling the trigger on higher volumes.<h3 id="isPasted">Adhere to Design Guidelines</h3><main id="isPasted">The list of examples is long, the possible polymer combinations nearly endless. That’s why it’s important to check with someone knowledgeable on the vagaries of polymer adhesion and chemical compatibility early in the design process, to verify that A) your chosen materials will play nice together, B) the part or overmoulded assembly is moldable given your current design, and C) that the materials are tribologically sound—that is, they are slippery enough, wear-resistant enough, or sticky enough for the product’s purposes.This is one time when sticking to Protolabs’ guidelines is especially important. Using a plastic that’s high in additives might help you achieve your product requirements, but it might also mean spending more time on the product design; the “sweet spot” of mouldability becomes smaller and smaller as plastic additives increase, and only gets more challenging with high complexity parts.Scared? Don’t be. All of these situations are quite manageable, it just takes a little more attention during the design process and possibly a second look at your material selection. And when in doubt, give Protolabs a call, even if you’re just kicking the tires at this point. Between our knowledgeable staff, automated quoting process, and free <a href="https://tryit.protolabs.com/quotes/7702b5c1-31dd-4d50-827c-e09acd8e2b6c/review/moulding-uk?utm_source=wevolver&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=uk-design-tip-0924&utm_content=wevolver-0924" title="Injection Moulding Sample Quote" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">mouldability analysis</a>, even the most chemically challenging materials are easy to master.As always, if you have questions or concerns, feel free to contact one of Protolabs’ applications engineers at +44 (0) 1952 683047 or <a href="mailto:customerservice@protolabs.co.uk" target="_blank">customerservice@protolabs.co.uk</a> to discuss options.</main>

The role that material compatibility, adhesion, friction, and wear play in design of moulded parts.

Why Material Science is Essential

The future of technology has an age-old problem: rust. When iron-containing metal reacts with oxygen and moisture, the resulting corrosion greatly impedes the longevity and use of parts in the automotive industry. While it’s not called “rust” in the semiconductor industry, oxidation is especially problematic in two-dimensional (2D) semiconductor materials, which control the flow of electricity in electronic devices, because any corrosion can render the atomic-thin material useless. Now, a team of academic and enterprise researchers has developed a synthesis process to produce a “rust-resistant” coating with additional properties ideal for creating faster, more durable electronics. &nbsp;&nbsp;<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1727135296605-mrs_bulletin_cover_mos2.gif" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">These materials are made from molybdenum disulfide, a two-dimensional semiconductor, grown on a sapphire surface. The triangular shapes seen are aligned because of a special process called epitaxy, where the material follows the pattern of the surface it's grown on. Insulating layers, like amorphous boron nitride, are added during the process of making these ultra-thin materials, which are used to build next-generation electronic devices. Credit: J.A. Robinson Research Group/Penn State. All Rights Reserved.The team, co-led by researchers at Penn State, published their work in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-48429-4?afsrc=1&bfsrc=7" rel="noreferrer noopener" target="_blank">Nature Communications</a>.&nbsp;2D materials are ultra-thin, just one or a few atoms thick. They hold promise for advanced semiconductors because their thinness provides a shorter and more direct path for electrons to move quickly and with less resistance through the material. This in turn allows for faster and more efficient electronic performance. &nbsp;Semiconductors are materials that conduct electricity under some conditions but not others, making them ideal for controlling electrical currents in electronic devices. Electronic devices, the “brains” of computer chips, are made from these materials. &nbsp;"One of the biggest issues that we see in 2D semiconductor research these days is the fact that the materials oxidize quickly,” said Joshua Robinson, professor of materials science and engineering and co-corresponding author of the work. “You need to ensure their long-term reliability because these are going into transistors or sensors that are supposed to last years. Right now, these materials don't last more than a week out in the open." &nbsp;Traditional methods to protect these materials from rusting involve oxide-based coatings, but these processes often use water, which ironically can accelerate the very oxidation they aim to prevent. The team’s approach to this problem was to seek a coating material and method that could avoid the use of water entirely. Enter amorphous boron nitride (a-BN). &nbsp;"We wanted to get away from using water in the process so we started thinking about what sort of 2D materials we can make that do not use water in its processing, and amorphous boron nitride is one of those," Robinson said. &nbsp;A non-crystalline form of boron nitride, a-BN is known for its high thermal stability and electrical insulation properties, making it ideal for use in semiconductors to insulate components, prevent unwanted electrical currents and improve device performance, Robinson said.<blockquote>“One of the biggest issues that we see in 2D semiconductor research these days is the fact that the materials oxidize quickly.”Joshua Robinson, professor of materials science and engineering</blockquote>He explained that a-BN a has high dielectric strength, a measurement indicating the material’s ability to withstand high electric fields without breaking down, a critical factor for reliable electronic performance. &nbsp;“The high dielectric strength demonstrated by a-BN is comparable to the best dielectrics available, and we don’t need water to make it,” Robinson said. "What we demonstrated in the paper was that including amorphous boron nitride yields improved device performance compared to conventional dielectrics alone."&nbsp;While the coating helped produce a better 2D transistor, getting the coating on the 2D materials proved a challenge, according to Robinson. Two-dimensional materials lack dangling bonds, which are unpaired electrons on the surface of a material that react or bond with other atoms. A standard single-step process that uses higher temperatures to coat the materials resulted in uneven and discontinuous coatings, well below the quality electronics need to function properly. &nbsp;To evenly coat 2D materials with the a-BN, the team developed a new two-step atomic layer deposition method, which involves first depositing a thin low-temperature a-BN “seed layer” before heating up the chamber to typical deposition temperatures between 250 and 300 degrees Celsius. This not only allowed the researchers to produce an even a-BN coating over the 2D semiconductors but also led to a 30% to 100% improvement — depending on the transistor design — in transistor performance compared to devices not utilizing the a-BN.&nbsp;"When you sandwich 2D semiconductors between the amorphous boron nitride, even though it’s amorphous, you end up with a smoother electronic road, so to speak, that would enable improved electronics,” Robinson said. “The electrons can go faster through the 2D material than they could if they were between other dielectric materials.”&nbsp;Robinson noted that even with its high dielectric strength, researchers have only scratched the surface of a-BN's potential as a dielectric material for semiconductor devices. &nbsp;“We have room for improvement even though it’s already outperforming other dielectric materials,” Robinson said. "The primary thing that we're trying to do right now is improve the overall quality of the material and then integrate it into some complex structures you would see in future electronics.”&nbsp;Along with Robinson, other authors of the study from Penn State include Cindy Chen, graduate student in materials science and engineering; Riccardo Torsi, graduate research assistant in materials science and engineering; Ke Wang, associate research professor in the Materials Research Institute; Bangzhi Liu, associate research professor in the Materials Research Institute. Other co-authors include co-corresponding author Yu-Chuan Lin, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University in Taiwan; Zhihong Chen and Joerg Appenzeller, Purdue University; Jessica Kachian, Intel Corporation; and Gilber B. Rayner Jr., The Kurt J. Lesker Company.&nbsp;The Semiconductor Research Corporation, through a program sponsored by National Institute of Standards and Technology, the Center for Emergent Functional Matter Science of National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, the Ministry of Education of Taiwan and the U.S. National Science Foundation supported this research. &nbsp;

A team of academic and enterprise researchers has developed a synthesis process to produce a “rust-resistant” coating with additional properties ideal for creating faster, more durable electronics.   

Water-free manufacturing approach could help advance 2D electronics integration

Inspired by the architecture of human bone’s tough outer layer, engineers at Princeton have developed a cement-based material that is 5.6 times more damage-resistant than standard counterparts. The bio-inspired design allows the material to resist cracking and avoid sudden failure, unlike conventional, brittle cement-based counterparts.In a Sept. 10 <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/adma.202313904" target="_blank">article</a> in the journal Advanced Materials, the research team led by <a href="https://engineering.princeton.edu/faculty/reza-moini" target="_blank">Reza Moini</a>, an assistant professor of <a href="https://cee.princeton.edu/" target="_blank">civil and environmental engineering</a>, and Shashank Gupta, a third-year Ph.D. candidate, demonstrate that cement paste deployed with a tube-like architecture can significantly increase resistance to crack propagation and improve the ability to deform without sudden failure.“One of the challenges in engineering brittle construction materials is that they fail in an abrupt, catastrophic fashion,” Gupta said.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1726788749303-For-Web-16x9-Moini-Gupta_091124_0008-2048x1152.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">The architecture resists crack propagation and toughens the material.In brittle construction materials used in building and civil infrastructure, strength ensures ability to sustain loads, while toughness supports resistance to cracking and spread of damage in the structure. The proposed technique tackles those problems by creating a material that is tougher than conventional counterparts while maintaining strength.Moini said the key to the improvement lies in the purposeful design of internal architecture, by balancing the stresses at the crack front with the overall mechanical response.“We use theoretical principles of fracture mechanics and statistical mechanics to improve materials’ fundamental properties ‘by design’,” he said.The team was inspired by human cortical bone, the dense outer shell of human femurs that provides strength and resists fracture. Cortical bone consists of elliptical tubular components known as osteons, embedded weakly in an organic matrix. This unique architecture deflects cracks around osteons. This prevents abrupt failure and increases overall resistance to crack propagation, Gupta said.The team’s bio-inspired design incorporates cylindrical and elliptical tubes within the cement paste that interact with propagating cracks.“One expects the material to become less resistant to cracking when hollow tubes are incorporated,” Moini said. “We learned that by taking advantage of the tube geometry, size, shape, and orientation, we can promote crack-tube interaction to enhance one property without sacrificing another.”The team discovered that such enhanced crack-tube interaction initiates a stepwise toughening mechanism, where the crack is first trapped by the tube and then delayed from propagation, leading to additional energy dissipation at each interaction and step.“What makes this stepwise mechanism unique is that each crack extension is controlled, preventing sudden, catastrophic failure,” said Gupta. “Instead of breaking all at once, the material withstands progressive damage, making it much tougher.”Unlike traditional methods that strengthen cement-based materials by adding fibers or plastics, the Princeton team’s approach relies on geometric design. By manipulating the structure of the material itself, they achieve significant improvements in toughness without the need for additional material.In addition to improving fracture toughness, the researchers introduced a new method to quantify the degree of disorder, an important quantity for design. Based on statistical mechanics, the team introduced parameters to quantify the degree of disorder in architected materials. This allowed the researchers to create a numerical framework reflecting the degree of disorder of the architecture.The researchers said the new framework provides a more accurate representation of the material’s arrangements, moving towards a spectrum from ordered to random, beyond the simple binary classifications of periodic and non-periodic. Moini said that the study makes a distinction with approaches that confuse irregularity and perturbation with statistical disorder such as Voronoi tessellation and perturbation methods.“This approach gives us a powerful tool to describe and design materials with a tailored degree of disorder,” Moini said. “Using advanced fabrication methods such as additive manufacturing can further promote the design of more disordered and mechanically favorable structures and allow for scaling up of these tubular designs for civil infrastructure components with concrete.”The research team has also recently&nbsp;<a href="https://engineering.princeton.edu/news/2024/08/30/special-twist-makes-cracking-easier-resist" target="_blank">developed</a> <a href="https://engineering.princeton.edu/news/2024/06/11/seashells-cement-nature-inspires-tougher-building-material" target="_blank">techniques</a> <a href="https://engineering.princeton.edu/news/2023/06/05/lasers-pave-way-better-use-cement" target="_blank">allowing</a> for a great deal of precision using robotics and additive manufacturing. By applying them to new architectures, and combinations of hard or soft materials within the tubes, they hope to expand the further the possibilities of applications in construction materials.“We’ve only begun to explore the possibilities,” Gupta said. “There are many variables to investigate, such as applying the degree of disorder to the size, shape, and orientation of the tubes in the material. These principles could be applied to other brittle materials to engineer more damage-resistant structures.”<hr>The paper, “Tough Cortical Bone-Inspired Tubular Architected Cement-Based Material with Disorder,” was published on September 10, 2024 in Advanced Materials. Funding for the project was provided by the National Science Foundation CAREER Award (2238992) and the CMMI Division Grant (ECI, 2129566).

Researchers Reza Moini and Shashank Gupta create stronger and more durable building materials. Photos by Sameer A. Khan/Fotobuddy

Inspired by the architecture of human bone’s tough outer layer, engineers at Princeton have developed a cement-based material that is 5.6 times more damage-resistant than standard counterparts.

Tougher concrete, inspired by bone

<section id="isPasted">Soft lithography creates three-dimensional patterns and structures at the microscale and nanoscale levels. Unlike photolithography, a fabrication technique used by the semiconductor industry, soft lithography produces microfluidic devices, microarrays, and microelectromechanical systems (MEMS). The “soft” in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/soft-lithography" target="_blank">soft lithography</a> refers to its use of mechanically soft materials such as polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) to produce a stamp or mold. Lithography is a printing process that renders an image on a flat surface.</section><section><h2>How Soft Lithography Works</h2>During soft lithography, a master mold with the desired microscale or nanoscale pattern is fabricated. Computer-aided design (CAD) software is used to produce this pattern, and traditional microfabrication techniques are used to produce the master mold. These fabrication techniques include photolithography, which uses light to etch features, and electron beam lithography, which patterns features with an accelerated beam of electrons. To achieve nanoscale features, nanoimprint lithography can be used.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1726560423573-21-BMF-0056-Molding-Graphic-V1.png" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">CAD Drawing of a PDMS Mold<section id="isPasted">It’s important to note that soft lithography’s master mold is not made of PDMS. Rather, it’s made of a material such as chrome-coated glass, which is light-sensitive. When this photosensitive material is exposed to light during photolithography, it loses its resistance to etching. To produce the desired pattern, a photomask with transparent areas allows light to shine through. In other words, the photomask determines where the light shines onto the chrome-coated glass and, in turn, where patterns are etched.Next, a liquid polymer such as PDMS is poured into the etched areas or channels of the master mold and allowed to cure, typically at an elevated temperature of ∼70°C overnight. After the PDMS hardens, it is peeled away from the mold. This PDMS stamp, as it’s known, carries the reverse pattern of the master mold and is pressed onto the target substrate. Through physical contact, capillary action, bonding, or other surface actions, the pattern is applied. Various substrate materials, including glass slides, can be used.</section><section><h2>How Soft Lithography Compares to 3D Printing</h2>Like soft lithography, 3D printing can create structures at the microscale and nanoscale levels; however, many 3D printers are limited to the macroscale. In addition, most (but not all) 3D printers can’t match soft lithography in terms of resolution. 3D printing also has some things in common with photolithography, which is commonly used with soft lithography. Both photolithography and resin 3D printing, a group of 3DP technologies, use a light source and a polymer. Yet that’s where the similarities end.During soft lithography, material is removed to create features such as microchannels. In a subsequent step, a liquid polymer such as PDMS is poured into these channels and allowed to cure, typically with the application of heat. By contrast, resin 3D printing adds rather than subtracts material. The material that is added is a polymer, but this polymer cures or hardens with the application of light rather than heat. In addition, this photosensitive polymer is added one layer at a time rather than poured all at once.There isn’t just one type of resin 3D printing, however. Members of this technology family include stereolithography (SLA), digital light processing (DLP), and projection micro stereolithography (PµSL). SLA and DLP are generally used for macroscale rather than microscale and nanoscale applications. By contrast, PµSL technology from Boston Microfabrication (BMF) is designed for microscale 3D printing. For applications such as microfluidics, BMF’s microArch® series of 3D printers can replace soft lithography.</section><section><h2>Soft Lithography vs. PµSL 3D Printing</h2>Unlike soft lithography, PµSL 3D Printing uses a machine rather than a master mold and a press for a PDMS stamp. Even more importantly, this form of resin 3D printing can create complex 3D channels that are difficult if not impossible to achieve with soft lithography. In addition to achieving high accuracy, precision, and resolution, PµSL 3D printing eliminates the challenge of using soft lithography to cut microscale features into layers and then bond these layers together to create one functioning device.<hr>To learn more about PµSL 3D Printing for microfluidics,&nbsp;<a href="https://bmf3d.com/resource/the-importance-of-machine-tolerance/" target="_blank" rel="noopener" id="isPasted">download this white paper</a>. BMF also invites you to examine our&nbsp;<a href="https://bmf3d.com/ultra-high-resolution-3d-printers/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">microArch® series of 3d printers</a> and to&nbsp;<a href="https://bmf3d.com/contact/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">contact us</a> with your questions.</section></section>

Soft lithography creates three-dimensional patterns and structures at the microscale and nanoscale levels. Unlike photolithography, a fabrication technique used by the semiconductor industry, soft lithography produces microfluidic devices, microarrays, and microelectromechanical systems (MEMS).

What is Soft Lithography and How Does It Compare to 3D Printing?

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materials

PLA, ABS, and PETG are three of the most popular filaments for FDM 3D printing.

In this article, we look at how three of the most commonly used filaments—PLA, ABS, and PETG—compare in terms of printability, properties, and availability.

PLA vs ABS vs PETG: A Comparison of 3D Printing Filaments

Acrylonitrile Styrene Acrylate (ASA) filament has emerged as a popular choice in 3D printing, particularly for applications demanding both durability and resilience. As a copolymer, ASA combines the properties of acrylonitrile, styrene, and acrylate, resulting in a material that offers superior performance in challenging environments. One of the critical factors influencing ASA’s usability is its glass transition temperature (Tg), which plays a pivotal role in determining the filament's suitability for various applications.The ASA glass transition temperature, typically about 100°C depending on the material and testing process, is a measure of the temperature at which the polymer transitions from a rigid, glassy state to a more flexible, rubbery state.[1] This property is crucial for assessing the material’s thermal stability and its ability to maintain structural integrity under heat. A high Tg indicates that ASA can withstand elevated temperatures without significant deformation, making it an ideal choice for parts exposed to heat or thermal cycles.Additionally, the ASA glass transition temperature affects its performance in outdoor and high-stress environments. The ability of ASA to retain its mechanical properties and resist deformation at elevated temperatures contributes to its suitability for a range of applications, from automotive components to outdoor equipment.[2] This article goes over the basics of ASA glass transition temperature and its relevance to 3D printing.<h2 dir="ltr">What is ASA 3D Printing Filament?</h2><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1724850853776-3d_printed_gears.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib" alt="asa filament">ASA filament is comparable in performance to ABSAcrylonitrile Styrene Acrylate (ASA) is a widely used thermoplastic in FDM/FFF 3D printing, known for its excellent weather resistance, mechanical strength, and UV stability. Often compared to ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene), ASA offers similar strength and durability but with superior resistance to outdoor conditions, making it ideal for applications that require exposure to sunlight or harsh weather.ASA’s UV stability prevents yellowing and degradation, ensuring that parts maintain their color and structural integrity over time. This property makes it a popular choice for automotive components, outdoor fixtures, and any application where prolonged exposure to the elements is a concern. Additionally, ASA is resistant to chemicals and has good impact strength, making it suitable for functional prototypes and end-use parts.In terms of printability, ASA is less prone to warping compared to ABS, although it still requires a heated bed and an enclosed build chamber for optimal results. Its slightly lower shrinkage reduces the risk of warping, but careful attention to bed adhesion and temperature control is necessary to minimize these issues. ASA typically prints at temperatures between 240°C and 260°C, with a heated bed set around 90°C to 110°C. The use of an enclosure helps maintain consistent temperature, reducing the likelihood of warping and cracking.ASA also supports post-processing, such as sanding, painting, and vapor smoothing, allowing for aesthetically pleasing and functional final products. However, one drawback is the emission of fumes during printing, similar to ABS, which requires adequate ventilation.Recommended reading: <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/asa-vs-abs" target="_blank">ASA vs ABS: Finding the right 3D printing filament</a><h2 dir="ltr">ASA Glass Transition Temperature</h2>The glass transition temperature (Tg) of Acrylonitrile Styrene Acrylate (ASA) is around 100°C, depending on the material and the testing process. This is a fairly high glass transition temperature compared to other low-cost 3D printing thermoplastics (but low compared to engineering plastics), making ASA particularly suitable for prototyping and low-risk applications where heat resistance and structural integrity are important.For comparison, ABS, a close relative of ASA, has a Tg of about 105°C, slightly higher than ASA. Both materials behave similarly during printing, requiring heated beds and enclosed chambers to maintain temperatures above their Tg to ensure proper layer adhesion. However, ASA offers better UV and weather resistance, making it the preferred choice for outdoor applications.On the other hand, PLA (Polylactic Acid), another widely used 3D printing material, has a much lower Tg of around 60°C. While PLA is easier to print due to its lower temperature requirements and minimal warping, its lower Tg limits its use in environments where higher temperatures are present. PLA parts can deform or soften under moderate heat, making them unsuitable for outdoor or high-heat applications where ASA would excel.Comparatively, materials like PETG (Polyethylene Terephthalate Glycol) have a Tg around 80°C. PETG offers a good balance between ease of printing and heat resistance but lacks the UV stability of ASA, making ASA a better choice for outdoor parts that must endure sunlight and heat without degrading.ASA’s Tg ensures that printed parts remain structurally stable and retain their mechanical properties in environments that would challenge lower Tg materials. However, designers must still consider ASA's limitations, ensuring that printed parts do not operate in conditions where temperatures exceed 100°C, as this could lead to softening and loss of strength.<h2 dir="ltr">Why Does ASA Glass Transition Temperature Vary?</h2>The glass transition temperature (Tg) of ASA (Acrylonitrile Styrene Acrylate) can vary due to several factors related to its composition and processing conditions. ASA is a copolymer, meaning it is made from multiple monomers—acrylonitrile, styrene, and acrylate.[3] The ratios of these monomers can affect the Tg. Variations in the proportions can lead to differences in the polymer's rigidity and thermal properties.Additionally, the presence of additives or fillers can influence the Tg. These can include impact modifiers, stabilizers, or colorants, each of which can alter the polymer’s thermal behavior. The manufacturing process also plays a crucial role; factors such as polymerization conditions, cooling rates, and thermal history can impact the final Tg. Variability in these conditions can result in slight changes in the Tg from one batch of ASA to another.Finally, the Tg can be affected by the molecular weight of the polymer chains. Higher molecular weight ASA may exhibit a different Tg compared to lower molecular weight variants due to differences in chain entanglement and mobility. Thus, the glass transition temperature of ASA is not fixed but rather a range influenced by its specific formulation and processing history.<h2 dir="ltr">Thermal Properties of Different ASA Filament Brands</h2><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzI0Njk2ODI3Mjk0LVAxNTMzMDk0LTEwMjR4NTc3LmpwZyIsImVkaXRzIjp7InJlc2l6ZSI6eyJ3aWR0aCI6OTUwLCJmaXQiOiJjb3ZlciJ9fX0=" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib" alt="prusament">Part made with Prusament ASA material (image credit:&nbsp;<a href="https://prusament.com/materials/prusament-asa/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Prusament</a>)&nbsp;When 3D printing ASA filament, the ASA glass transition temperature is not necessarily the main property to focus on. This is due to a number of factors, but mainly because the extrusion temperature of a material is closer to its melting point than its glass transition temperature.All filament manufacturers offer recommended printing temperatures for their ASA filament, as well as recommended bed temperatures. But many do not specify the glass transition temperature of the product, as it is less relevant for its end use. The table below shows the slight variations in ASA print settings between filament brands.<div dir="ltr" align="left"><table><tbody><tr><td>Brand</td><td>Glass Transition Temperature</td><td>Recommended Printing Temperature</td><td>Recommended Bed Temperature</td></tr><tr><td>Prusament ASA</td><td>Not specified</td><td>255°C - 265°C</td><td>105°C - 115°C</td></tr><tr><td>FormFutura ApolloX</td><td>98°C</td><td>235°C - 255°C</td><td>80°C - 100°C</td></tr><tr><td>Filamentum ASA extrafill</td><td>Not specified</td><td>240°C - 255°C</td><td>80°C - 105°C</td></tr><tr><td>Polymaker PolyLite ASA</td><td>97.8°C</td><td>240°C - 260°C</td><td>75°C - 95°C</td></tr><tr><td>eSun ASA</td><td>Not specified</td><td>240°C - 270°C</td><td>90°C - 110°C</td></tr></tbody></table></div><h2 dir="ltr">High-Temperature Performance of 3D Printed ASA</h2>3D printed ASA (Acrylonitrile Styrene Acrylate) is known for its good temperature resistance and UV resistance for its price point, making it a preferred material for outdoor and high-temperature applications. This property is also particularly advantageous for parts that undergo thermal cycling.In terms of UV resistance, ASA excels compared to other common 3D printing materials like ABS. ASA’s chemical composition includes a high level of acrylate, which provides better protection against UV degradation. This makes ASA highly resistant to yellowing and physical degradation when exposed to sunlight, ensuring that printed parts retain their mechanical properties and aesthetic appearance over time. The inherent UV stability of ASA is beneficial for outdoor applications, such as automotive parts, construction components, and various outdoor equipment.To enhance the heat resistance of ASA 3D prints, consider the following strategies:<h3 dir="ltr">Optimize Print Settings</h3>Increase the extrusion temperature and print bed temperature to ensure better layer adhesion and reduce internal stresses. A higher nozzle temperature (typically between 240°C and 260°C) ensures the material is fully fused, leading to stronger, more heat-resistant prints. Slower print speeds can also improve inter-layer bonding, contributing to overall thermal stability.<h3 dir="ltr">Annealing</h3>Post-process the ASA print by annealing it in an oven. Heating the print to a temperature just below the glass transition temperature (around 85°C to 95°C) for a few hours can relieve internal stresses and improve the crystallinity of the polymer. This process can enhance the print’s thermal resistance and dimensional stability when exposed to higher temperatures.<h3 dir="ltr">Infill and Wall Thickness Adjustment</h3>Increase the infill percentage and wall thickness to reinforce the print. A denser infill and thicker walls create a more robust structure that can better resist deformation under heat. Additionally, using a higher number of perimeters can enhance the print’s rigidity, making it less susceptible to warping or softening when exposed to elevated temperatures.Recommended reading: <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/what-is-pla-filament-composition-advantages-applications" target="_blank">What is PLA Filament? Composition, Advantages, Applications</a><h1 dir="ltr">Conclusion</h1><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1724850879343-green_car_side_mirror.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib" alt="car">ASA's UV resistance makes it suitable for external car parts like mirror housingsASA's glass transition temperature (Tg) is an important parameter that influences its mechanical, thermal, and chemical properties. Understanding Tg is helpful for optimizing ASA's performance in diverse engineering applications, from automotive exteriors to electronic housings. However, ordinary 3D printer users should focus on a material’s suggested printing temperature rather than its glass transition temperature to achieve a high level of printing performance.<h1 dir="ltr">Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)</h1>What is the ASA glass transition temperature?The glass transition temperature of ASA is around 100°C.What is the ideal printing temperature for ASA?ASA filament prints best at an extrusion temperature of around 250°C and a bed temperature of around 100°C.How does ASA compare to ABS?ASA has a slightly lower glass transition temperature than ABS. It is therefore fractionally less heat resistant but offers superior UV and water resistance.What are some popular ASA filaments?Common ASA filament brands include FormFuture ApolloX, Filamentum ASA extrafill, and Polymaker PolyLite ASA.<h1 dir="ltr">References</h1>[1] Shen MC, Eisenberg A. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0079678667900398" target="_blank">Glass transitions in polymers</a>. Rubber Chemistry and Technology. 1970 Jan 1;43(1):95-155.[2] Berzinis A, Andriuli M. <a href="https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/1999-01-0847/" target="_blank">Weathering performance of black thermoplastic resins for unpainted automotive exterior applications</a>. SAE transactions. 1999 Jan 1:706-15.[3] Breulmann M. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230137160_Synthesis_Properties_and_Applications_of_Acrylonitrile-Styrene-Acrylate_Polymers" target="_blank">Synthesis, Properties and Applications of Acrylonitrile±Styrene±Acrylate Polymers</a>. Modern Styrenic Polymers: Polystyrenes and Styrenic Copolymers. 2003 Mar 1:341.

The ASA glass transition temperature is around 100°C. This makes it slightly easier to print than ABS, while it is also better for outdoor applications due to its good UV resistance.

ASA Glass Transition Temperature & Its Impact on 3D Printing

Thermoplastic filament is just one type of 3D printing material

From low-cost plastic filament to engineering-grade titanium powder, the range of available 3D printing materials is wider than ever. Here we look at the key material categories.

Types of 3D Printing Materials and How They Form Backbone of Additive Manufacturing

What is PLA filament and why is it so popular for entry-level 3D printing and beyond? This article covers the basics of Polylactic Acid.

What is PLA Filament? Composition, Advantages, Applications

materials

Profiles