<p><strong>As computer chips continue to get smaller and more complex, the ultrathin metallic wires that carry electrical signals within these chips have become a weak link. Standard metal wires get worse at conducting electricity as they get thinner, ultimately limiting the size, efficiency, and performance of nanoscale electronics.</strong></p><p>In a <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adq7096" data-extlink="">paper</a> published Jan. 3 in <em>Science</em>, Stanford researchers show that niobium phosphide can conduct electricity better than copper in films that are only a few atoms thick. Moreover, these films can be created and deposited at sufficiently low temperatures to be compatible with modern computer chip fabrication. Their work could help make future electronics more powerful and more energy efficient.</p><p>“We are breaking a fundamental bottleneck of traditional materials like copper,” said<a href="https://profiles.stanford.edu/asir" data-extlink="">&nbsp;Asir Intisar Khan</a>, who received his doctorate from Stanford and is now a visiting postdoctoral scholar and first author on the paper. “Our niobium phosphide conductors show that it’s possible to send faster, more efficient signals through ultrathin wires. This could improve the energy efficiency of future chips, and even small gains add up when many chips are used, such as in the massive data centers that store and process information today.”</p><h2><strong>A new class of conductors</strong></h2><p>Niobium phosphide is what researchers call a topological semimetal, which means that the whole material can conduct electricity, but its outer surfaces are more conductive than the middle. As a film of niobium phosphide gets thinner, the middle region shrinks but its surfaces stay the same, allowing the surfaces to contribute a greater share to the flow of electricity and the material as a whole to become a better conductor. Traditional metals like copper, on the other hand, become worse at conducting electricity once they are thinner than about 50 nanometers.</p><p>The researchers found that niobium phosphide became a better conductor than copper at film thicknesses below 5 nanometers, even when operating at room temperature. At this size, copper wires struggle to keep up with rapid-fire electrical signals and lose a lot more energy to heat.</p><p>“Really high-density electronics need very thin metal connections, and if those metals are not conducting well, they are losing a lot of power and energy,” said<a href="https://profiles.stanford.edu/epop" data-extlink="">&nbsp;Eric Pop</a>, the Pease-Ye Professor in the School of Engineering, a professor of electrical engineering, and senior author on the paper. “Better materials could help us spend less energy in small wires and more energy actually doing computation.”</p><p><span class="fr-img-caption fr-fic fr-dib" style="width: 832px;"><span class="fr-img-wrap"><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1736817677357-nbpconductors_schematic_1500_1_0.jpg.webp" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"><span class="fr-inner">A film a few atoms thick of non-crystalline niobium phosphide conducts better through the surface to make the material, as a whole, a better conductor. | Il-Kwon Oh / Asir Khan</span></span></span></p><p id="isPasted">Many researchers have been working to find better conductors for nanoscale electronics, but so far the best candidates have had extremely precise crystalline structures, which need to be formed at very high temperatures. The niobium phosphide films made by Khan and his colleagues are the first examples of non-crystalline materials that become better conductors as they get thinner.</p><p>“It has been thought that if we want to leverage these topological surfaces, we need nice single-crystalline films that are really hard to deposit,” said Akash Ramdas, a doctoral student at Stanford and co-author on the paper. “Now we have another class of materials – these topological semimetals – that could potentially act as a way to reduce energy usage in electronics.”</p><p>Because the niobium phosphide films don’t need to be single crystals, they can be created at lower temperatures. The researchers deposited the films at 400 degrees Celsius, a temperature that is low enough to avoid damaging or destroying existing silicon computer chips.</p><p>“If you have to make perfect crystalline wires, that’s not going to work for nanoelectronics,” said<a href="https://profiles.stanford.edu/yuri-suzuki" data-extlink="">&nbsp;Yuri Suzuki</a>, the Stanley G. Wojcicki Professor in the&nbsp;<a href="https://humsci.stanford.edu/" data-extlink="">School of Humanities and Sciences</a>, a professor of applied physics and co-author on the paper. “But if you can make them amorphous or slightly disordered and they still give you the properties you need, that opens the door to potential real-world applications.”</p><h2><strong>Enabling future nanoelectronics</strong></h2><p>Although niobium phosphide films are a promising start, Pop and his colleagues don’t expect them to suddenly replace copper in all computer chips – copper is still a better conductor in thicker films and wires. But niobium phosphide could be used for the very thinnest connections, and it paves the way for research into conductors made of other topological semimetals. The researchers are already looking into similar materials to see if they can improve niobium phosphide’s performance.</p><p>“For this class of materials to be adopted in future electronics, we need them to be even better conductors,” said Xiangjin Wu, a doctoral student at Stanford and co-author on the paper. “To that end, we are exploring alternative topological semimetals.”</p><p>Pop and his team are also working on turning their niobium phosphide films into narrow wires for additional testing. They want to determine how reliable and effective the material could be in real-world applications.</p><p>“We’ve taken some really cool physics and ported it into the applied electronics world,” Pop said. “This kind of breakthrough in non-crystalline materials could help address power and energy challenges in both current and future electronics.”</p><hr><p><em>Pop is also professor, by courtesy, of materials science and engineering in the School of Engineering and of applied physics in the School of Humanities and Sciences. He is the faculty co-director of</em><a href="https://systemx.stanford.edu/" data-extlink=""><em>&nbsp;Stanford SystemX</em></a><em>&nbsp;and a senior fellow of the</em><a href="https://energy.stanford.edu/" data-extlink=""><em>&nbsp;Precourt Institute for Energy</em></a><em>.</em></p><p><em>Suzuki is also professor, by courtesy, of materials science and engineering in the School of Engineering and is the director of</em><a href="https://snsf.stanford.edu/" data-extlink=""><em>&nbsp;Stanford Nano Shared Facilities</em></a><em>&nbsp;and a member of</em><a href="http://biox.stanford.edu/" data-extlink=""><em>&nbsp;Stanford Bio-X</em></a><em>.</em></p><p><em>Additional Stanford co-authors of this research are Krishna Saraswat, the Ricky/Nielsen Professor in the School of Engineering; Felipe H. da Jornada, assistant professor of materials science and engineering; and graduate student Emily Lindgren.</em></p><p><em>Other co-authors of this work are from Ajou University, Korea Electronics Technology Institute, and IBM T.J. Watson Research Center.</em></p>

A patterned chip with Hall bar devices of ultrathin niobium phosphide film. | Asir Khan / Eric Pop

Researchers at Stanford Engineering have developed an ultrathin material that conducts electricity better than copper and could enable more energy-efficient nanoelectronics.

A new ultrathin conductor for nanoelectronics

<h1 dir="ltr" id="isPasted">The Role of Material Selection in Optimized Manufacturing</h1><p dir="ltr">Additive Manufacturing (AM) offers the ability to create complex geometries with exceptional design freedom. Material selection is of central importance in AM to achieve desired mechanical properties like tensile strength, fatigue resistance, and heat deflection temperature, particularly in high-performance industries like aerospace, automotive, and medical devices, as it directly impacts the durability and overall performance of the final product. However, the process of balancing load-bearing capacities, thermal expansion, environmental stability, and cost efficiency poses a set of technical challenges that many engineers face. In this regard, the contract manufacturing platform Replique provides a solution with its<a href="https://replique.io/material-hub/">&nbsp;Material Hub</a> that simplifies material selection with a database rich in detailed performance data tailored for AM, enabling engineers to make informed choices efficiently.</p><p dir="ltr">The article provides a detailed approach for engineers to streamline material selection in AM, addressing the challenges of matching material properties to performance criteria and production constraints. It discusses how Replique's Material Hub integrates detailed material data and performance characteristics to provide engineers with a robust tool that optimizes decisions for mechanical strength, durability, environmental impact, and compliance with standards.</p><h1 dir="ltr">Engineering Challenges in Material Selection for Additive Manufacturing</h1><h3 dir="ltr">Material Diversity and Performance Metrics</h3><p dir="ltr">AM processes can utilize a wide range of materials, including polymers, metals, and composites, with unique mechanical, thermal, and chemical properties. Engineers must evaluate these materials in terms of specific performance metrics to ensure that these properties meet application requirements. For instance, polymers usually offer flexibility and chemical resistance, and metals provide superior tensile strength and thermal stability. Composites, on the other hand, can be tailored to achieve specific combinations of properties, such as high stiffness and low weight.&nbsp;</p><p dir="ltr">However, the microstructure and mechanical properties of parts manufactured by different AM techniques, such as Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) and Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM), can vary significantly from conventionally manufactured components, which necessitates a thorough analysis of material performance under these conditions.&nbsp;</p><h3 dir="ltr">Data Overload and Manual Selection Pitfalls</h3><p dir="ltr">The sheer volume of material data available can be overwhelming for engineers. Filtering through technical datasheets, standards, and certifications to compare properties like Young's modulus, elongation at break, and thermal expansion coefficients is a time-consuming and error-prone process. This traditional, manual approach leaves engineers susceptible to pitfalls, such as inadvertently overlooking crucial data. For instance, high elongation at break may suggest resilience, but without considering factors like chemical resistance, the material may fail in specific environmental conditions.</p><h3 dir="ltr">Consequences of Material Mismatches</h3><p dir="ltr">An improper material selection can lead to serious consequences, which can impact both product reliability and operational safety. For instance, structural integrity failures can lead to part deformations under stress. Similarly, inadequate thermal resistance can result in warping or degradation in high-temperature applications. These mismatches can lead to costly recalls or reengineering efforts, especially in industries where high precision is critical.</p><h1 dir="ltr">Leveraging Replique's Material Hub for Performance-Based Material Selection</h1><h3 dir="ltr">Overview of the Material Hub Platform</h3><p dir="ltr">Engineers can address the challenges inherent in material selection for AM by turning to powerful tools like Replique's Material Hub. The contract manufacturer integrated these solutions to further democratize 3D printing, leveraging the extensive expertise gained from their vast network. Replique's Material Hub now provides access to an extensive database of over 500 materials from 30+ manufacturers in metals, polymers and composites, offering a comprehensive resource for engineers to search, filter, and compare materials specific to AM processes. The platform offers in-depth material descriptions, including stress-strain behavior, creep resistance data, and thermal expansion coefficients. This technical depth enables engineers to select materials suited to the specific performance demands of their designs. Once the right material is selected, the user can either order the part directly through Replique with the press of a button or contact the material provider for more information or to place a material order.</p><p dir="ltr"><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1736885296955-rep1.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"></p><h3 dir="ltr" id="isPasted">Advanced Filters for Engineers</h3><p dir="ltr">The Material Hub provides advanced filtering capabilities to quickly identify suitable materials based on critical performance criteria. For instance, engineers can filter materials by mechanical properties such as Young's modulus, yield strength, and tensile strength or by thermal properties like thermal conductivity and coefficient of thermal expansion. Beyond these more common properties the Material Hub also includes data on very specific properties like moisture uptake, comparative tracking index and industry specific certifications such as railway flammability. These filters ensure that engineers can focus on materials that meet precise criteria without going through unnecessary data. For all property values it is made transparent according to which test standards the data was obtained. After applying all the filters, engineers receive a list of materials tailored to their application needs. A simple comparison tool then helps them easily select the best fit.</p><p dir="ltr"><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1736885317271-Nicht-benannt-9.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"></p><h3 dir="ltr" id="isPasted">Data-Driven Decision Making</h3><p dir="ltr">Replique’s Material Hub eliminates much of the trial-and-error testing that engineers traditionally perform by providing a comprehensive set of data on fatigue life, impact resistance, and material aging under real-world conditions. This data helps engineers predict how materials will perform over time, particularly in demanding environments, reducing the guesswork traditionally associated with material selection. This data-centric approach accelerates development timelines, allowing engineers to achieve higher-quality outcomes with fewer resources.</p><h3 dir="ltr">Engineering Support from Replique</h3><p dir="ltr">Replique not only offers the data platform it also provides direct support from technical consultants who assist engineers with material selection for complex applications. Their expert guidance is advantageous for engineers tackling unique and complex challenges, such as high-stress environments or extreme temperature resistance. Replique's technical consultants provide tailored advice that complements the Material Hub's resources and helps drive optimized material decisions.</p><h2 dir="ltr">Technical Benefits of Using Replique's Material Hub</h2><h3 dir="ltr">Efficient Decision-Making</h3><p dir="ltr">The Material Hub significantly reduces the time required to evaluate materials, which allows engineers to make decisions more quickly without compromising accuracy. For example, engineers working on high-stress applications like load-bearing components can specifically filter materials based on high tensile strength and fatigue resistance. Similarly, for heat dissipation components, materials with high thermal conductivity can be easily identified. This way, engineers can skip the traditional process of sourcing data from multiple sources, leading to substantial time savings.</p><h3 dir="ltr" id="isPasted">Enhanced Product Integrity</h3><p dir="ltr">Reliable, vetted material properties and performance data give engineers confidence that their designs will meet functional requirements without compromising safety or reliability. For instance, an engineer designing a custom prosthetic can use the Material Hub to select a material that meets both biocompatibility and fatigue resistance standards aligned with their unique design since, in medical device design, selecting biocompatible materials with appropriate mechanical properties is crucial to ensure long-term performance and patient safety. Similarly, in aerospace, where lightweight strength and temperature resilience are critical, engineers utilize the Material Hub to choose materials that optimize component performance and durability.</p><h3 dir="ltr">Increased R&amp;D Efficiency</h3><p dir="ltr">Research and Development cycles in AM usually involve iterative prototyping to validate material suitability, which can be time-consuming and costly. Replique's Material Hub can significantly accelerate the research and development process by reducing the time and cost associated with material qualification.&nbsp;</p><p dir="ltr">Moreover, by providing access to the latest materials and performance metrics, the Material Hub supports engineers in staying ahead of industry trends and exploring new materials that could enhance future designs.</p><h2 dir="ltr">Conclusion: Empowering Engineers with Comprehensive Material Insights</h2><p dir="ltr">Replique's Material Hub provides engineers with a data-centric tool to tackle the complex task of material selection in additive manufacturing. The platform empowers engineers to make material choices by consolidating material performance data, integrating advanced filtering options, and offering expert support, which ultimately leads to improved product performance, reduced development time, and increased manufacturing efficiency.</p><p dir="ltr">Engineers looking to reduce material selection errors, optimize production efficiency, and innovate with confidence in their AM designs should check out <a href="https://replique.io/material-hub/">Replique's Material Hub</a> invaluable resource.</p><h1 dir="ltr">Reference</h1><ol><li dir="ltr"><p dir="ltr">Choose the perfect material for your 3D printing application. Replique. Available at: <a href="https://replique.io/material-hub/">https://replique.io/material-hub/</a> (Accessed on: November 13, 2024)</p></li></ol>

In additive manufacturing, the selection of materials is crucial for achieving specific mechanical properties such as tensile strength and heat resistance. Replique's Material Hub offers a comprehensive database to aid engineers in making cost-effective and technically sound material choices.

Simplifying Material Selection for Engineers: A Technical Guide to Replique's Material Hub for Additive Manufacturing

<p><strong>Researchers from ITMO and Almazov National Medical Research Centre have created a new metal-organic framework-based material that can be used to make fast-acting, durable sensors for detecting water and toxic molecules. The structure, described in an <a href="https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2024/mh/d4mh01264j" target="_blank" id="isPasted">article</a> in Materials Horizons, can instantaneously detect changes in humidity and identify dimethylformamide, a dangerous compound often used in production.</strong></p><p dir="ltr" id="isPasted">Color-changing sensors are commonly used in production environments to quickly find toxic substances and monitor changes in humidity. These sensors are based on the so-called solvatochromic materials, which change color depending on the solvent environment. Currently, most solvatochromic sensors are created using dyes and inorganic salts. However, these materials have drawbacks: they cannot be reused, are toxic to living organisms (can cause allergies and accumulate in the body), and react to a wide range of compounds, which means they aren’t always capable of detecting a specific substance.</p><p dir="ltr">One possible alternative are metal-organic frameworks (MOFs). These are highly ordered hybrid structures composed of organic molecules and metal ions. Their chemical composition can be varied in order to adjust their physical and chemical properties.</p><p dir="ltr">Until recently, most solvatochromic MOFs weren’t durable: at best, they lasted for dozens of color change cycles before the structure degraded. Additionally, they changed color slowly (ranging from several days to one minute) when interacting with a solvent, and there was a lack of research to support their biocompatibility.</p><p dir="ltr">The team from ITMO succeeded in developing a highly durable and biocompatible solvatochromic MOF based on cobalt ions and trimesic acid; the new MOF can quickly detect water and toxic compounds. Compared to other materials, the MOF is selective: in experiments with a range of solvents, it reacted only to two substances, turning pink when interacting with water, and violet – when coming into contact with the toxic dimethylformamide.</p><p dir="ltr">The new structure reacts to these two substances instantaneously, in 0.1 seconds, which is 600 times faster than existing MOFs. At the same time, the MOF is durable – it maintains a stable structure at temperatures up to 300 °C and can sustain more than 50 drastic color-changing cycles. Such rapid color changes were achieved by heating the material with infrared laser radiation.&nbsp;</p><p><span class="fr-img-caption fr-fic fr-dib" style="width: 832px;"><span class="fr-img-wrap"><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1736471430596-1407500.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"><span class="fr-inner">The new MOF in crystal form. Photo courtesy of the researchers</span></span></span></p><p dir="ltr" id="isPasted">Once the MOF was produced, researchers from Almazov National Medical Research Centre stepped in to test its biocompatibility. In their experiments, they introduced the MOF into the organs of the zebrafish (Danio rerio). Embryos of the species were kept in a MOF-based solvent and then tested for their survival rate and behavior. These studies demonstrated that the median lethal dosage for adult species was 6 mg/kg of body weight, which indicates a relative safety of the substance when administered orally. Moreover, for embryos, the median lethal concentration was established at 0.81 mg/ml in the aqueous environment, which also indicates a low level of toxic effects in the early stages of development.</p><p dir="ltr">Thanks to its high biocompatibility, the new MOF can be used inside desiccators – containers for moisture-sensitive chemicals and goods.</p><p dir="ltr">Based on the new material, it’s possible to create a detector for water molecules. In the future, it could be applied in chemical production, where the &nbsp;presence of water byproducts can be critical. It can also be used to detect toxic dimethylformamide, a harmful substance used in the oil industry and to produce leather or dyes. Dimethylformamide doesn’t have a distinct color or smell, which is why it can only be detected with dedicated devices.</p><blockquote><p dir="ltr"><em>“Our study is a step forward in chemical sensors, as we were the first to demonstrate the fastest, highly durable, and biocompatible MOF-based sensor. In the future, we will keep researching solvatochromic materials. We are also planning to collaborate with an engineering team to develop a prototype for the detector that will be used at production sites,” concludes the paper’s first author&nbsp;<strong>Maria Timofeeva, a junior researcher at ITMO</strong><br></em></p></blockquote>

The new MOF in crystal form. Photo courtesy of the researchers

Researchers from ITMO and Almazov National Medical Research Centre have created a new metal-organic framework-based material that can be used to make fast-acting, durable sensors for detecting water and toxic molecules.

New Composite for Ultrafast Durable Sensors

<p id="isPasted">Measuring Shore hardness is a widely used technique for assessing the hardness of <a href="https://xometry.pro/en-eu/materials/">materials such as rubber, plastics, and elastomers</a>. Unlike other hardness testing methods like Rockwell or Brinell, which are designed for metals and harder materials, Shore hardness testing specifically measures the resistance of more flexible materials to indentation. This makes it particularly valuable in applications where properties like flexibility, elasticity, and impact resistance are essential.</p><p>The term “hardness” refers to a material’s ability to resist indentation or localized deformation, often quantified using an instrument called a durometer. The Shore hardness scale measures this property, providing a numerical value that indicates how much force is required to create an indentation in the material.&nbsp;</p><h2 data-counter-attr="value0"><strong>Shore Hardness Scales: Shore A, Shore B and Shore OO</strong></h2><p>Shore hardness scales are designed to measure the hardnesses of various materials—typically plastics and rubbers, in compliance with <a href="https://www.iso.org/standard/74969.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ISO 48-4</a> or <a href="https://www.astm.org/d2240-15r21.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ASTM D2240</a>. Shore hardness is a versatile technique for measuring hardness, from very soft materials like thermoplastic elastomers (TPEs) and soft rubbers to very hard materials like thermoplastics and thermosets. The two most commonly used durometer scales are Shore A and Shore D. The hardness values in both scales range from 0 to 100 and are empirically based on the indentation depth of the test.</p><p><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1736411376691-EN-shore-hardness.webp" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"></p><p id="isPasted">Though not as commonly used, the Shore OO scale is also a durometer scale used to measure the hardness of materials. The Shore hardness scale to be used depends on the material and is largely dependent on the type of test the user would like to use.</p><h2 data-counter-attr="value1"><strong>Shore A vs. Shore D: What Are the Differences?</strong></h2><p>The primary differences between the Shore A and Shore D scales lie in the type of indenter and applied force used to conduct the tests and the materials intended to measure. These differences are crucial for selecting the appropriate Shore hardness durometer test procedure and scale.</p><table><thead><tr><th>Feature</th><th>Shore A</th><th>Shore D</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Material type</td><td>Softer, more flexible materials (e.g. rubbers, silicones, soft elastomers, TPEs, TPU)</td><td>Harder, more rigid materials (e.g. rigid plastics like ABS, PC)</td></tr><tr><td>Indenter type</td><td>Conical tip for softer materials</td><td>Sharper point for penetrating harder materials</td></tr><tr><td>Scale range</td><td colspan="2">0 to 100</td></tr><tr><td>Force applied</td><td>Approximately 8 N</td><td>Approximately 44.5 N</td></tr><tr><td>Best use case</td><td>Measuring materials requiring flexibility and elasticity</td><td>Measuring materials requiring rigidity and toughness</td></tr><tr><td>Applications</td><td>Seals, gaskets, shoe soles, flexible consumer products</td><td>Hard hats, garden hoses, rigid plastic components</td></tr></tbody></table><h2 data-counter-attr="value2"><strong>Shore Durometer Conversion Chart</strong></h2><p>There is some overlap between the two scales, where either Shore A or Shore D can be used to determine and report the hardness of a single material. For instance, a material with a hardness of 100 Shore A is equivalent to about 60 Shore D, while a material with a hardness of Shore 10 D is equivalent to about 70 Shore A.</p><p>The table below shows the approximately equivalent values for Shore A and Shore D scales:</p><p><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1736411413570-durometer-converter-2048x681.webp" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"></p><p id="isPasted"><strong>Despite these overlaps, it is important to use the same scale when comparing different materials, to be able to effectively quantify a material’s hardness, performance, and quality.</strong></p><h2 data-counter-attr="value3"><strong>Shore A Hardness Scale</strong></h2><p>Shore A measures the hardness of softer, more flexible materials such as elastomers, silicones, and rubbers. The indenter for Shore A has a conical tip, which is suitable for penetrating softer materials. The Shore A durometer applies an approximate 8 N force onto a material using a 35° conical head.</p><p><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1736411431671-EN-shore-a-hardness-testing.webp" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"></p><h3 data-counter-attr="value4" id="isPasted"><strong>Common Materials Measured with Shore A Hardness</strong></h3><p>Shore A hardness is a measure used to quantify the hardness of flexible and soft materials. It’s especially relevant for materials like rubbers, silicones, thermoplastic elastomers (TPEs), and softer thermoplastics and thermosets.</p><table><thead><tr><th>Type of Material</th><th>Material Example</th><th>Shore A Hardness</th><th>Common Applications</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><strong>Silicone</strong></td><td><a href="https://xometry.pro/en-eu/materials/true-silicone/">True Silicone</a></td><td>20 – 60</td><td>Seals, o-rings, kitchen utensils, medical implants</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Silicone</strong></td><td>Silicone elastomers</td><td>20 – 70</td><td>Automotive applications, food-grade products, medical devices</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Rubber</strong></td><td><a href="https://xometry.pro/en-eu/materials/sil-30/">SIL 30</a></td><td>35</td><td>Automotive gaskets, medical devices, kitchenware, seals</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Rubber</strong></td><td><a href="https://xometry.pro/en-eu/materials/epu-40/">EPU 40</a></td><td>72</td><td>Industrial parts, seals, gaskets</td></tr><tr><td><strong>TPE (Thermoplastic elastomer)</strong></td><td><a href="https://xometry.pro/en-eu/materials/tpu-polyurethane/">TPU (Thermoplastic polyurethane)</a></td><td>85 – 95</td><td>Footwear, hoses, industrial belts, cable jackets, sports equipment</td></tr><tr><td><strong>TPE (Thermoplastic elastomer)</strong></td><td><a href="https://xometry.pro/en-eu/materials/tpv-rubber/">TPV (Thermoplastic vulcanizates)</a></td><td>50 – 80</td><td>Automotive seals, weather strips, soft-touch grips</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Softer Thermoplastic / Thermoset</strong></td><td><a href="https://xometry.pro/en-eu/materials/ldpe/">LDPE (Low-density polyethylene)</a></td><td>95</td><td>Squeeze bottles, plastic bags, tubing</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Softer Thermoplastic / Thermoset</strong></td><td>PVC (Polyvinyl chloride), flexible grade</td><td>50 – 90</td><td>Flexible hoses, inflatable products, cable insulation</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Softer Thermoplastic / Thermoset</strong></td><td>Epoxy resins</td><td>60-85</td><td>Flooring, coatings, adhesives</td></tr></tbody></table><h3 data-counter-attr="value5"><strong>Example of Applications</strong></h3><p>The table below shows the Shore A hardness of some familiar items:</p><table><thead><tr><th>Product</th><th>Shore A Hardness</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Rubber band</td><td>20 A</td></tr><tr><td>Bottle nipple</td><td>40 A</td></tr><tr><td>Pencil eraser</td><td>55 A</td></tr><tr><td>Shoe sole</td><td>70 A</td></tr><tr><td>Leather belt</td><td>80 A</td></tr><tr><td>Tire tread</td><td>80 A</td></tr><tr><td>Golf ball</td><td>90 A</td></tr></tbody></table><h2 data-counter-attr="value6"><strong>Shore D Hardness Scale</strong></h2><p>Shore D measures the hardness of harder, more rigid materials, including hard plastics and harder elastomers with little flexibility. The indenter for Shore D has a sharper point measured from the horizontal compared to the Shore A indenter, which allows it to penetrate harder materials due to the smaller area over which the force of the indenter is applied. To test for Shore D durometer, a 44.5 N force is applied onto a material using a 30° conical head.</p><p><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1736411452109-%D0%A1%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BA-%D1%8D%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0-2024-09-04-105402.png" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"></p><h3 data-counter-attr="value7" id="isPasted"><strong>Common Materials Measured with Shore D Hardness</strong></h3><p>The Shore D scale is often used to measure the hardness of more rigid plastics and elastomers such as vulcanized rubber, hard TPEs, and thermoplastics like ABS, PC, PVC, and more.</p><table><thead><tr><th>Type of Material</th><th>Material Example</th><th>Shore D Hardness</th><th>Common Applications</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><strong>Rigid Plastic</strong></td><td><a href="https://xometry.pro/en-eu/materials/abs/">ABS</a></td><td>70 – 85</td><td>Automotive components, electronic housings, consumer products (e.g., toys like LEGO bricks)</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Rigid Plastic</strong></td><td><a href="https://xometry.pro/en-eu/materials/pc-polycarbonate/">PC (Polycarbonate)</a></td><td>70 – 85</td><td>Eyewear lenses, safety helmets, protective shields</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Rigid Plastic</strong></td><td><a href="https://xometry.pro/en-eu/materials/acrylic/">Acrylic / PMMA</a></td><td>70-80</td><td>Windows, skylights, signage</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Rigid Plastic</strong></td><td><a href="https://xometry.pro/en-eu/materials/pvc/">PVC (Polyvinyl chloride), rigid grade</a></td><td>80-90</td><td>Pipes, fittings, window frames, building materials</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Hard Elastomer</strong></td><td>Vulcanized rubber, hard grade</td><td>50-75</td><td>Automotive tires, belts, industrial seals</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Hard Elastomer</strong></td><td>Hard TPEs</td><td>55-75</td><td>Tool handles, automotive components, caster wheels</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Thermoset Plastic</strong></td><td>Epoxy resins</td><td>75-90</td><td>Coatings, adhesives, electrical encapsulation, composite materials</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Composite Material</strong></td><td>Carbon fiber composites</td><td>80-90</td><td>Aerospace, automotive, sports equipment, high-performance applications</td></tr></tbody></table><h3 data-counter-attr="value8"><strong>Examples of Applications</strong></h3><p>The table below shows the Shore D hardness of some common objects:</p><table><thead><tr><th>Product</th><th>Shore D Hardness</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Shoe sole</td><td>10 D</td></tr><tr><td>Garden hose</td><td>30 D</td></tr><tr><td>Hard Book cover</td><td>40 D</td></tr><tr><td>Wooden ruler</td><td>70 D</td></tr><tr><td>Hard hat</td><td>80 D</td></tr></tbody></table><h2 data-counter-attr="value9"><strong>How to Measure Shore Hardness?</strong></h2><p>The Shore hardness measurement procedure is described in the four steps below:</p><ol><li>Place the test sample on a hard, flat, or rigid surface. Apply pressure to the <a href="https://xometry.pro/en-eu/articles/shore-hardness-for-plastics-and-rubbers/#durometer">durometer</a> quickly and steadily, avoiding any sudden impacts or shocks.</li><li>Take hardness measurements at specified intervals. Record the readings at 3 seconds and then at 15 seconds.</li><li>Measure the hardness at five different points on the test sample to account for any variations. Calculate and record the average of these measurements.</li><li>If the needle on the durometer has penetrated the plastic to its maximum depth and the device is pressed firmly against the material, the needle will indicate the material’s hardness value on the scale.</li></ol><p><span class="fr-img-caption fr-fic fr-dib" style="width: 832px;"><span class="fr-img-wrap"><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1736411470775-shore-hardness-indenters.png" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"><span class="fr-inner">Illustration of the Shore A and Shore D indenters when measuring the Shore hardness of a plastic part</span></span></span></p><p id="isPasted">The hardness value is displayed on a scale ranging from 0 to 100 and is determined by the amount of pressure needed to form an indentation at a particular depth. Materials with higher Shore hardness values have higher hardnesses. However, it’s important to note that a higher Shore hardness does not necessarily mean a material is more durable or better performing in all applications. Hardness is just one aspect of a material’s properties; other factors like flexibility, impact resistance, and tensile strength also play critical roles in determining overall performance.</p><h2 data-counter-attr="value10"><strong>Troubleshooting Tips for Inaccurate Shore Hardness Readings</strong></h2><p>Achieving accurate and reliable readings is essential for making informed decisions in material selection and product design, but various factors can contribute to inaccurate measurements or material-specific challenges. Here are some troubleshooting tips to help you ensure consistent and precise Shore hardness readings:</p><ul><li><strong>Ensure proper calibration of the Shore hardness durometer:</strong> Regularly calibrate your durometer using a standard reference block to ensure accurate readings, as an improperly calibrated device can lead to misleading hardness values and impact material selection and quality control. Keep the durometer clean and well-maintained; check for wear on the indenter tip and other parts, and replace any worn components promptly to maintain measurement precision.</li><li><strong>Prepare the material surface properly:</strong> Ensure the material’s surface is clean, smooth, and free of contaminants or debris to avoid inaccurate readings. The test sample should be flat and sized according to testing standards (e.g., ASTM D2240-15). If the material has a coating or surface treatment, remove it or choose an area that reflects the material’s true bulk properties to prevent false hardness readings.</li><li><strong>Use the correct shore scale:&nbsp;</strong>Choose the appropriate Shore scale (Shore A or Shore D) for the material being tested to avoid inaccurate readings. Be mindful of materials that fall within overlapping hardness ranges and select the scale that best matches the material’s properties and application requirements.</li><li><strong>Account for material-specific characteristics:</strong> Not all materials are suitable for Shore hardness testing. Extremely hard or soft materials may fall outside the scales’ effective range, and some materials, like soft elastomers, can recover from indentation too quickly, resulting in inconsistent or inaccurate readings. To improve accuracy, take multiple measurements and calculate an average. Additionally, ensure that samples meet the minimum thickness requirements—typically at least 6 mm—to avoid skewed results due to inadequate material thickness for proper indentation.</li><li><strong>Apply proper testing technique:</strong> Apply the durometer with steady, consistent pressure, avoiding sudden impacts or jerky movements that could lead to inaccurate readings. Maintain the correct dwell time (typically 1 to 15 seconds) and record measurements consistently to reduce variability. Test multiple points on the material to account for inconsistencies and natural variability, especially in composites or mixed materials. Averaging these readings will yield a more reliable overall hardness value.</li></ul><p><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1736411497557-sls-tpu-flexible-print-scaled.webp" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"></p><h2 data-counter-attr="value11" id="isPasted"><strong>Hardness Testing Results for Reliable Material Performance</strong></h2><p>Understanding the differences between Shore A and Shore D hardness scales is crucial for selecting the right materials for your specific applications. By mastering Shore hardness testing techniques, choosing the correct scale, and troubleshooting common issues, engineers and designers can ensure optimal material performance, quality, and durability in their products. Remember, Shore hardness is just one piece of the puzzle—consider it alongside other material properties for the best results.</p>

This article explores different Shore hardness scales, focusing on the differences between Shore A and Shore D, and provides insights on how to select the appropriate scale for measuring plastic, elastomer and rubber hardness in diverse applications.

Shore Hardness for Plastics and Rubbers: Shore A and Shore D

<p><strong id="isPasted">Perovskite solar cells are considered a flexible and sustainable alternative to conventional silicon-based solar cells. Researchers at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) are part of an international team that has found new organic molecules within a few weeks that can be used to increase the efficiency of perovskite solar cells. The team cleverly combined the use of AI with fully automated high-throughput synthesis. The strategy developed can be transferred to other areas of materials research, such as the search for new battery materials. The researchers are currently reporting in Science <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.ads0901" target="_blank">(DOI: 10.1126/science.ads0901)</a> .&nbsp;</strong></p><p id="isPasted">If you want to find out from 1,000,000 molecules which make perovskite solar cells particularly efficient as conductors of positive charge, you have to produce and test these million molecules - or proceed as researchers led by Tenure Track Professor Pascal Friederich from the KIT Institute of Nanotechnology and Professor Christoph Brabec from HI ERN have done. "With just 150 targeted experiments, a breakthrough was achieved that would otherwise have required hundreds of thousands of tests. The workflow developed opens up new possibilities for the rapid and cost-efficient discovery of high-performance materials in a wide range of application areas," says Brabec. Using one of the materials discovered in this way, they increased the efficiency of a reference solar cell by around two percent to 26.2 percent. "This success shows that with a clever strategy, enormous time and resources can be saved when developing new energy materials," says Friederich.</p><p>The starting point at HI ERN was a database with the structural formulas of around one million virtual molecules that could be produced from commercially available substances. The researchers at KIT used established quantum mechanical methods to calculate energy levels, polarity, geometry, and other characteristics of 13,000 of these virtual molecules, which were randomly selected.&nbsp;</p><h2><strong>AI training with data from only 101 molecules</strong></h2><p>From these 13,000 molecules, the researchers then selected 101 molecules that differed as much as possible in their characteristics. These were produced automatically at HI ERN using a robot system, thereby producing otherwise identical solar cells. They then measured their efficiency. "The key to the success of our strategy was that, thanks to our highly automated synthesis platform, we were able to produce truly comparable samples and thus determine reliable values for the efficiency," says Christoph Brabec, who led the work at HI ERN.&nbsp;</p><p>The KIT researchers trained an AI model using the achieved efficiencies and the characteristics of the associated molecules. The model then suggested another 48 molecules for synthesis based on two criteria: an expected high efficiency and unpredictable properties. "If the machine learning model is unsure about predicting the efficiency, it is worth producing the molecule to examine it more closely," Pascal Friederich explains the second criterion. "It could surprise with a high efficiency."&nbsp;</p><p>In fact, the molecules proposed by the AI could be used to build above-average efficient solar cells, including ones that outperform other state-of-the-art materials. "We cannot be sure that we have really found the best among a million molecules, but we are certainly close to the optimum," says Friederich, tenure-track professor for artificial intelligence in materials science.</p><h2><strong>AI versus chemical intuition</strong></h2><p>The researchers can understand the AI's molecule suggestions to a certain extent because the AI used indicates which features of the virtual molecules were decisive for its suggestions. It turned out that the AI's suggestions were partly based on features, such as the presence of certain chemical groups such as amines, which chemists had previously paid less attention to.</p><p>Christoph Brabec and Pascal Friederich are convinced that their strategy is promising for materials research in other application areas or can be extended to the optimization of entire components.</p><p>The research results, which were developed in collaboration with researchers from the University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, the Ulsan National Institute of Science in South Korea, the Xiamen University in China and the University of Electronic Science and Technology in Chengdu, China, were recently published in the renowned journal "Science". (ffr)</p><hr><h3><strong>Original publication</strong></h3><p>Jianchang Wu, Luca Torresi, ManMan Hu, Patrick Reiser, Jiyun Zhang, Juan S. Rocha-Ortiz, Luyao Wang, Zhiqiang Xie, Kaicheng Zhang, Byung-wook Park, Anastasia Barabash, Yicheng Zhao, Junsheng Luo, Yunuo Wang, Larry Lüer, Lin-Long Deng, Jens A. Hülse, Dirk M. Guldi, M. Eugenia Pérez-Ojeda, Sang Il Seok, Pascal Friederich, Christoph J. Brabec: Inverse design of molecular hole-transporting semiconductors tailored for perovskite solar cells. Science, 2024. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.ads0901%C2%A0" target="_blank">DOI 10.1126/science.ads0901.</a></p>

One in a million: Artificial intelligence helps researchers find new materials for highly efficient solar cells. (Photo: Kurt Fuchs/HI ERN)

Researchers show how the use of machine learning enormously accelerates the search for new semiconducting molecules for perovskite solar cells

Using AI to develop better photovoltaic materials faster

<p dir="ltr" id="isPasted">Annealing PLA is a post-processing step that involves heating 3D printed PLA parts to enhance their mechanical strength and thermal resistance. Compared to untreated PLA, annealed parts exhibit improved durability, making them more resistant to heat deformation and mechanical stress over time.&nbsp;</p><p dir="ltr">This improvement in long-term performance makes annealing an appealing post-processing option for projects that demand reliability under challenging conditions. Particularly relevant for makers, hobbyists, and some engineers, this technique addresses common weaknesses in PLA, such as low heat tolerance and brittleness.</p><p dir="ltr">This article provides detailed insights into how to execute the annealing PLA process effectively, troubleshoot challenges, and maximize results for a variety of projects.</p><h2 dir="ltr">What is PLA?</h2><p><span class="fr-img-caption fr-fic fr-dib" style="width: 832px;"><span class="fr-img-wrap"><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1736158120847-biodegradable_cup_base.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib" alt="pla"><span class="fr-inner">PLA is a common thermoplastic material for 3D printing and other processes</span></span></span></p><p dir="ltr">Polylactic Acid (PLA) is a thermoplastic polymer derived from renewable resources like corn starch or sugarcane. It is one of the most popular materials used in 3D printing, particularly for Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) printers. PLA’s widespread use stems from its ease of printing, low cost, and eco-friendly nature.</p><p dir="ltr">PLA filament is highly favored by beginners and professionals due to its low printing temperature (190–220°C), minimal warping, and ability to produce detailed, smooth prints. Unlike materials such as ABS or PETG, PLA requires neither a heated bed nor an enclosed printer, making it accessible for low-cost desktop 3D printers.[1] Additionally, it is available in a wide variety of colors and composite forms, such as PLA infused with wood, metal, or carbon fiber for aesthetic or functional enhancements.</p><p dir="ltr">One of PLA’s major drawbacks is its low heat resistance. PLA has a glass transition temperature of around 60°C, which means it begins to soften and deform at relatively low temperatures. This limitation arises from its molecular structure, which lacks the crystalline reinforcement seen in materials like ABS or polycarbonate.</p><p dir="ltr">The low heat resistance restricts PLA’s use for functional parts exposed to heat, such as car interiors or outdoor applications in hot climates. For higher thermal performance, heat-treated PLA or PLA blends are available, but these solutions often compromise some of PLA's printability advantages.</p><h2 dir="ltr">What Does Annealing Do to PLA?</h2><p dir="ltr">Annealing 3D printed PLA involves heating the material to a specific temperature (typically 60–100°C) below its melting point and holding it there for a set time. This process alters the molecular structure, increasing crystallinity and improving the material's thermal and mechanical properties.[2]</p><p dir="ltr">In its printed state, PLA often has a mostly amorphous structure due to rapid cooling. Annealing allows polymer chains to realign into more orderly crystalline regions. This increased crystallinity raises the material’s heat deflection temperature (HDT), enabling it to withstand higher temperatures. On a simpler level, the heating of the plastic also creates stronger layer adhesion, as layers begin to blend into one another with fewer internal stresses.</p><p dir="ltr">Dimensional changes, such as shrinkage or warping, can occur during annealing as the internal structure reorganizes. These changes depend on factors like geometry, print settings, and annealing conditions. Parts with uniform infill and consistent wall thickness tend to anneal more predictably. Furthermore, high-temperature PLA variants (HTPLA) may exhibit less warping during annealing.</p><p dir="ltr">By improving heat resistance and strength, annealing makes PLA more suitable for demanding applications like automotive or outdoor use. However, care is needed to prevent deformation during the process.</p><p dir="ltr"><strong>Recommended reading: <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/pla-melting-point" target="_blank"><em>A Comprehensive Guide to PLA Melting Point and How it Influences 3D Printing</em></a></strong></p><h2 dir="ltr">How to Anneal PLA Prints</h2><p dir="ltr">Annealing PLA can enhance its thermal and mechanical properties by increasing its crystallinity. Follow these steps to anneal PLA prints effectively while minimizing risks of deformation.</p><h3 dir="ltr">Equipment Required</h3><ul><li dir="ltr"><p dir="ltr">3D printed object: Ensure the print is clean and free of debris.</p></li><li dir="ltr"><p dir="ltr">Oven: A conventional or toaster oven capable of maintaining precise temperatures between 60°C and 100°C.</p></li><li dir="ltr"><p dir="ltr">Oven thermometer: To verify and monitor the oven’s temperature, as built-in settings can be inaccurate.</p></li><li dir="ltr"><p dir="ltr">Heat-resistant surface: A flat metal tray, glass dish, or ceramic plate to place the print on.</p></li><li dir="ltr"><p dir="ltr">Support material (optional): Sand, uncooked rice, or silicone molds to support complex geometries and prevent deformation.</p></li><li dir="ltr"><p dir="ltr">Heat-resistant gloves or tongs: For safely handling trays or prints during or after annealing.</p></li><li dir="ltr"><p dir="ltr">Calipers or ruler: To measure the part before and after annealing to assess dimensional changes.</p></li></ul><h3 dir="ltr">1. Prepare Your Print</h3><p dir="ltr">Start with a clean, well-printed object. Uniform wall thickness and consistent infill density help ensure even heat distribution during annealing. If possible, choose PLA formulated for annealing, as some blends are optimized for this process.</p><h3 dir="ltr">2. Preheat the Oven</h3><p dir="ltr">Set your oven to a temperature between 60°C and 100°C. The ideal temperature depends on the PLA blend and the object itself, so it helps to conduct tests before annealing your final part. On the whole, the ideal temperature will be the highest possible temperature before the material begins to deform to an unacceptable level.</p><h3 dir="ltr">3. Place the Print on a Stable Surface</h3><p dir="ltr">Put your print on a flat, heat-resistant surface like a metal tray or glass dish. If deformation is a concern, support complex shapes with sand or uncooked rice, which helps maintain the geometry during heating.</p><h3 dir="ltr">4. Anneal the Print</h3><p dir="ltr">Once the oven reaches the desired temperature, place the tray with your print inside. Leave it in the oven for 15 to 60 minutes, depending on the part's size and thickness. Avoid sudden temperature changes that could cause warping. Alternatives to oven baking the PLA include simply using a heated print bed (and covering the print with a bowl) or using a sous vide immersion heater.</p><h3 dir="ltr">5. Cool Down Gradually</h3><p dir="ltr">Turn off the oven and allow the print to cool to room temperature inside to prevent thermal shock. Rapid cooling can cause cracks or deformation. Once the oven is cool to the touch, remove the print.</p><h3 dir="ltr">6. Inspect the Results</h3><p dir="ltr">After annealing, check for any dimensional changes, such as shrinkage or warping. Measure critical dimensions to ensure they meet your requirements. Keep in mind that some slight deformation is normal, especially for complex geometries.</p><h3 dir="ltr">Tips for Success</h3><ul><li dir="ltr"><p dir="ltr">Use test prints to fine-tune your annealing process.</p></li><li dir="ltr"><p dir="ltr">Avoid convection ovens, as airflow can lead to uneven heating.</p></li><li dir="ltr"><p dir="ltr">Monitor the process closely to prevent overheating, which could melt or deform the part.</p></li></ul><h3 dir="ltr">Annealing Time</h3><p dir="ltr">PLA annealing times typically range from 15 to 60 minutes, depending on the part’s size and thickness. Smaller or thinner parts require less time, while larger or bulkier pieces need more. Monitoring is important to ensure even heat treatment and to prevent overheating, which can cause warping or deformation.</p><h3 dir="ltr">Annealing Temperature</h3><p dir="ltr">Annealing temperatures for PLA typically range between 60°C and 100°C, depending on the filament's composition and other factors. It helps to use an accurate oven thermometer to maintain a consistent temperature. Too low won’t effectively increase crystallinity, while too high risks melting or deforming the print. Manufacturer guidelines can help determine the optimal range.</p><h2 dir="ltr">Shrinkage, Warping &amp; Other Considerations</h2><p><span class="fr-img-caption fr-fic fr-dib" style="width: 832px;"><span class="fr-img-wrap"><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1736158136509-3d_printing_measurement.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib" alt="measuring"><span class="fr-inner">Always measure the annealed prints to check for dimensional changes</span></span></span></p><p dir="ltr">Shrinkage and warping are common concerns when annealing PLA prints, arising from changes in the material's internal structure. As PLA heats during annealing, its polymer chains reorganize into a more crystalline arrangement. This densification process can cause the material to contract, leading to dimensional changes or shrinkage. Uneven heating or cooling exacerbates the issue, causing some areas to shrink more than others, which results in warping or distortion.</p><p dir="ltr">The degree of shrinkage varies based on PLA composition, print geometry, and annealing conditions. Standard PLA typically shrinks by 1–2% with the aforementioned annealing times and temperatures, but high-crystallinity or annealing-specific PLAs may exhibit less shrinkage. Parts with uneven wall thickness or complex geometries are more prone to warping due to differential stresses during heat treatment.</p><p dir="ltr">To offset these effects, careful preparation is crucial. Supporting the print with sand or uncooked rice during annealing may help stabilize its shape, particularly for intricate designs, though there is debate over the effectiveness of this method.</p><p dir="ltr"><strong>Recommended reading: <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/the-ultimate-guide-to-3d-printing-post-processing-techniques" target="_blank"><em>The Ultimate Guide to 3D Printing Post-Processing Techniques</em></a></strong></p><h2 dir="ltr">How Do Other Filaments React to Annealing?</h2><p dir="ltr">Many 3D printing filaments, such as ABS, PETG, and nylon, are less suited for annealing because their required temperatures are higher than PLA’s, increasing the risk of warping or deformation. ABS and nylon, for example, require annealing temperatures near or above their heat deflection points, which can destabilize the print.</p><p dir="ltr">While PETG has a less crystalline structure than PLA, annealing can still provide some benefits, such as improving impact strength.[3] However, the process often leads to higher shrinkage rates and thermal stresses, making it challenging to achieve consistent results. These factors limit annealing's practicality for most non-PLA materials.</p><h2 dir="ltr">Conclusion</h2><p dir="ltr">Annealing PLA is an effective method to enhance the thermal and mechanical properties of 3D printed PLA parts. By carefully heat treating the material, its crystalline structure improves and layer lines are reduced, resulting in increased temperature resistance and <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/how-strong-are-3d-printed-parts" target="_blank">strength</a>.&nbsp;</p><p dir="ltr">While shrinkage and warping are potential challenges, these can be mitigated through proper preparation, controlled heating, and gradual cooling. Compared to other filaments, PLA’s relatively low annealing temperature makes the process accessible and practical for most users.</p><p dir="ltr">With the right approach, annealing transforms PLA prints into durable components suitable for a broader range of applications, extending the versatility of this eco-friendly and widely-used 3D printing material.</p><h2 dir="ltr">Frequently Asked Questions</h2><p dir="ltr"><strong>What is the purpose of annealing PLA prints?</strong></p><p dir="ltr">Annealing PLA prints increases their crystallinity, enhancing their heat resistance, strength, and overall durability. This process makes PLA more suitable for applications requiring higher thermal stability, such as automotive or outdoor components, while maintaining its eco-friendly properties.</p><p dir="ltr"><strong>How do you prevent warping when annealing PLA?</strong></p><p dir="ltr">To prevent warping, ensure uniform wall thickness and infill during printing. Support complex shapes with materials like sand or uncooked rice during annealing. Additionally, gradually cool the print by leaving it in the oven after turning it off, preventing thermal shock.</p><p dir="ltr"><strong>Can all types of PLA be annealed?</strong></p><p dir="ltr">Most PLA filaments can be annealed, but some, particularly blends designed for specific properties, may have limited heat resistance or low crystallization potential. Always check the manufacturer’s guidelines for recommended annealing temperatures and times for the best results.</p><p dir="ltr"><strong>Why isn’t annealing suitable for other 3D printing filaments like ABS or PETG?</strong></p><p dir="ltr">Other filaments like ABS and PETG require much higher annealing temperatures, which can lead to warping or deformation. ABS, for example, has a high heat deflection point that risks destabilizing prints, while PETG’s less crystalline structure means annealing offers little benefit.</p><h1 dir="ltr">References</h1><p dir="ltr">[1] Steenhuis HJ, Pretorius L. <a href="https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/jmtm-01-2016-0002/full/html" target="_blank">Consumer additive manufacturing or 3D printing adoption: an exploratory study</a>. Journal of Manufacturing Technology Management. 2016 Sep 5;27(7):990-1012.</p><p dir="ltr">[2] Wach RA, Wolszczak P, Adamus‐Wlodarczyk A. <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/mame.201800169" target="_blank">Enhancement of mechanical properties of FDM‐PLA parts via thermal annealing</a>. Macromolecular Materials and Engineering. 2018 Sep;303(9):1800169.</p><p dir="ltr">[3] Kumar KS, Soundararajan R, Shanthosh G, Saravanakumar P, Ratteesh M. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214785320376458" target="_blank">Augmenting effect of infill density and annealing on mechanical properties of PETG and CFPETG composites fabricated by FDM</a>. Materials Today: Proceedings. 2021 Jan 1;45:2186-91.</p>

Annealing PLA improves the strength and heat resistance of your 3D printed parts, making them more durable and functional. Here we look at how and when to anneal PLA.

Annealing PLA to Maximize Strength and Heat Resistance

Material hardness measurement with a Brinell hardness tester (Source: emcotest.com)

This article provides an overview of common hardness testing methods for metals, comparing their applications, benefits, and drawbacks, and includes a comprehensive table to guide method selection.

Hardness Testing of Metals: Rockwell, Brinell, Vickers, Knoop, and Leeb Tests

<p id="isPasted">Liquid crystal elastomers are a class of soft materials that can change shape in response to stimuli such as light or heat — making them promising for applications in soft robotics, wearable and biomedical devices, smart textiles and more. But designing compositionally uniform elastomers that can change into different shapes in response to just one stimulus has been challenging and has limited the application of these potentially powerful materials.&nbsp;</p><p>Now, researchers from the&nbsp;<a href="https://seas.harvard.edu/">Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences</a> (SEAS) have developed a way to program liquid crystal elastomers with the ability to deform in opposite directions just by heating — opening up a range of applications.&nbsp;</p><p>The research was published in&nbsp;<a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adq6434" target="_blank">Science</a>.&nbsp;</p><p>“We have shown that by encoding multiple phase transitions within a single material, we can create scalable, easy to fabricate systems capable of achieving various deformations and shape changes without the need of complex designs or composite materials,” said&nbsp;<a href="https://seas.harvard.edu/person/joanna-aizenberg">Joanna Aizenberg</a>, the Amy Smith Berylson Professor of Materials Science and Professor of Chemistry &amp; Chemical Biology at SEAS and senior author of the paper.&nbsp;</p><p>The team used an approach that combined theoretical modeling,&nbsp;chemical modifications, and mechanics of polymer-polymer interactions to design the system. They began by orienting liquid crystal monomers, which could be bonded together to form polymer chains, along one direction in a magnetic field. The monomers, which were designed with long molecular tails and long linkers, would dangle at the side of polymer chains — like the pendulum of a clock.</p><p>When exposed to UV light, the oriented molecules tether together and form polymer chains. The process of polymerization contracts and puts strain on the material, squeezing those aligned monomers into a zig-zag, chevron-like pattern of polymers.&nbsp;</p><p>The researchers found that when they increased the temperature, those chevron-shaped polymers flattened and stacked into flat layers. If they increased the temperature further, those layers transformed into a randomly coiled state — like a pile of spaghetti. When they lowered the temperature back down, the random polymers reformed into flat layers then back into chevrons.&nbsp;</p><p>“With soft actuators, we need deformations to be reversible so we can cycle them many, many times,” said Milan Wilborn, a PhD candidate in Aizenberg’s lab and co-first author of the paper. &nbsp;“And we demonstrated that we can switch between these three phases at high frequency, moving quickly between each deformation state.”</p><p>The researchers also demonstrated that by aligning the molecules in different directions before polymerization, they could encode different shape changes into the material, including flat sheets that move like the fins of stingrays and jellyfish by morphing into saddles and domes. &nbsp;</p><p>“What is so powerful about this research is we have this single, soft material which can achieve opposite deformations. So at room temperature, the material is flat, then it forms a saddle when the polymers are stacked in flat layers and then transforms into a dome when the polymers become random,” said Wilborn. “We’re really excited about using these materials as soft actuators for bioinspired motions.”</p><p>These transformations respond to not only temperature, but also light and solvent, making them useful for applications from smart textiles to temperature-regulating robotic skins.&nbsp;</p><p>This research was co-authored by Yuxing Yao, Baptiste Lemaire, Foteini Trigka, Friedrich Stricker, Alan H. Weible, Shucong Li, Robert K. A. Bennett, Tung Chun Cheung, Alison Grinthal, Mikhail Zhernenkov, Guillaume Freychet, Patryk Wąsik, Boris Kozinsky, Michael M. Lerch and Xiaoguang Wang.</p><p>It was supported by the US Department of Energy, Office of Science, Basic Energy Sciences and the Harvard University Materials Research Science and Engineering Center (MRSEC).</p>

Researchers encode multiple shapes into simple material

Shape-changing soft material for soft robotics, smart textiles and more

<p id="isPasted">In the holiday movie The Grinch, makeup artists are reported to have spent several hours each day encasing Jim Carrey’s face with prosthetics to create the iconic grumpy, green-furred creature. Such elaborate prosthetics, often made possible by materials like silicone rubbers, may have now found an unexpected yet beneficial biomedical engineering application, according to a new study from Texas A&amp;M University.</p><p><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-76652-y" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Published in the journal <em>Scientific Reports</em></a><em>,&nbsp;</em>researchers have created realistic, skin-like replicas made of Ecoflex, a type of silicone rubber that can potentially serve as a platform to evaluate risks of bacterial infections from intravenous catheters and test wearable sensors, among other biomedical applications. The study found that EcoFlex-based skin replicas can be engineered to mimic actual skin textures, wettability, and elasticity, simulating the conditions where bacteria grow and adhere.</p><p>“We think that the material holds tremendous promise for studying infections at the insertion site due to bacteria that are naturally occurring on the skin,” said Majed Othman Althumayri, a graduate student in the Texas A&amp;M Department of Biomedical Engineering and primary author of the paper. “Our goal was to create a skin-like material with ingredients that can be purchased off the shelf. Ecoflex is not just easy to use, it can be cured quickly with minimum additional steps, making it very convenient.”&nbsp;</p><p>There are roughly a million bacteria per square centimeter of human skin. The most common of them is <em>Staphylococcus</em>, particularly the species <em>Staphylococcus epidermidis</em>, which is considered a typical resident of the skin microbiome. Infections often happen when there is a cut, break or wound on the skin, allowing the bacteria to enter the bloodstream. In fact, a relatively common infection in hospitals comes from surgically inserting tubes or catheters into veins. Each year, around 80,000 catheter-related bloodstream infections happen in intensive care units alone, underscoring its public health significance in the United States.</p><p>“We have been slow in finding solutions for preventing infections from intravenous catheters,” said Althumayri. “A reason could be that we lack good platforms to test new catheter designs or &nbsp;wearable biosensor technologies and train staff so that the number of infections can be reduced.”&nbsp;</p><p><span class="fr-img-caption fr-fic fr-dib" style="width: 832px;"><span class="fr-img-wrap"><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1734481767784-News-BMEN-Hands3Long-16Dec2024.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"><span class="fr-inner">Hand replica made of Ecoflex. | Image:&nbsp;<cite id="isPasted">Courtesy of Majed Othman Althumayri</cite></span></span></span></p><p id="isPasted">To address this gap, the researchers turned to Ecoflex 00-35, a fast-curing, biocompatible rubber used for various applications, including prosthetics for special effects. First, they created molds of common intravenous insertion sites, such as the elbows, hands and forearms. Then, by pouring Ecoflex into the molds that contained artificial bones and tubes acting as veins, the researchers created skin-like replicas.&nbsp;</p><p>Next, the researchers tested if the Ecoflex skin replicas had properties that matched that of real skin. They measured the replicas’ wettability, bacterial adhesion and mechanical properties, such as elasticity and resilience. The researchers found that the Ecoflex models could replicate human skin roughness within a 7.5% error margin. Further, high-resolution imaging showed that bacteria could adhere to the skin replica and grow on it.&nbsp;</p><p>Then, in a key experiment, the researchers simulated an intravenous catheter insertion into an Ecoflex hand replica that they created. This artificial hand effectively modeled phases of bacterial growth, showing promise that these replicas can be used for implementing infection control measures and improving the design of medical devices like catheters.</p><p>However, the researchers noted that their current experiments do not entirely model real-world conditions.&nbsp;</p><p>“Developing realistic skin models that can mimic the human skin is an important initial step,” said Dr. Hatice Ceylan Koydemir, corresponding author on the study and assistant professor in the Department of Biomedical Engineering with a research program housed within the Texas A&amp;M University Center for Remote Health Technologies and Systems. “But we think that incorporating additional elements, like body fluids and other clinically relevant situations, in future experiments will bolster our findings and further validate Ecoflex’s potential for medical applications.”</p><p>Other contributors to the research include Azra Yaprak Tarman, a graduate student in the Department of Biomedical Engineering.</p><p>This study was partly sponsored by the National Institute of General Medical Sciences (one of the National Institutes of Health), the Department of Defense Office of Naval Research and the National Science Foundation-funded&nbsp;<a href="https://tees.tamu.edu/research/initiatives/paths-up.html" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Engineering Research Center PATHS-UP</a>. Researchers also received additional support from the Department of Biomedical Engineering, the Center for Remote Health Technologies and Systems, the Texas A&amp;M Engineering Experiment Station, the AggieFab Nanofabrication Facility, and the Soft Matter Facility.</p>

Graduate student Majed Othman Althumayri demonstrates an Ecoflex cast of his hand. | Image: Emily Oswald/Texas A&M Engineering

In a new study, Texas A&M researchers have used a skin-like material as a platform for investigating infections from intravenous catheters.

Prosthetic Material Could Help Reduce Infections from Intravenous Catheters

<p data-pm-slice="1 1 []" id="isPasted"><strong>Let's start with the Properties of Aluminum AlSi10Mg (3.2382)</strong></p><p><strong>1. High Strength and Hardness:</strong> AlSi10Mg is renowned for its high strength and hardness. The addition of magnesium and silicon enhances its mechanical properties, making it suitable for applications that require both durability and strength.</p><p><strong>2. Good Thermal Properties:</strong> The alloy exhibits excellent thermal conductivity, which is crucial for applications in high-temperature environments. This property makes it effective in managing heat dissipation, especially in components subjected to thermal stresses.</p><p><strong>3. Good Processability:</strong> The presence of silicon in AlSi10Mg improves the viscosity of the melt pool during additive manufacturing. This enhances the alloy's processability compared to pure aluminum, allowing for more precise and efficient 3D printing.</p><p><strong>4. High Corrosion Resistance:</strong> AlSi10Mg offers excellent resistance to corrosion, which is essential for parts exposed to harsh environments. This property ensures the longevity and reliability of components, especially in aerospace and automotive applications.</p><p><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1734430992551-2-min.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"></p><p><br></p><p><strong>Applications of Aluminum AlSi10Mg (3.2382)</strong></p><p><strong>1. Aviation and Aerospace:</strong> In the aerospace industry, AlSi10Mg is valued for its high strength-to-weight ratio, thermal conductivity, and corrosion resistance. It is commonly used in structural components, engine parts, and other critical applications where performance and reliability are paramount.</p><p><strong>2. Automotive:</strong> The alloy is used in automotive parts where high strength and lightweight properties are essential. It is particularly useful for producing parts that need to withstand stress while contributing to overall vehicle efficiency.</p><p><strong>3. Prototype Cast Parts:</strong> AlSi10Mg is ideal for producing prototype cast parts. Its good processability and mechanical properties make it suitable for creating functional prototypes that can be tested in real-world conditions.</p><p><strong>4. Serial Parts:</strong> The alloy is also used in serial production, where it can be employed to manufacture components in bulk. Its ability to maintain strength and quality over large production runs makes it a popular choice for various serial applications.</p><p><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1734430973728-1-min.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"></p><p><br></p><p><strong>Physical and Mechanical Properties</strong></p><p><strong>Tensile Strength:</strong> In its as-built condition, AlSi10Mg exhibits a tensile strength of approximately 400 N/mm². This high strength ensures that parts made from this alloy can endure significant stresses and loads.</p><p><strong>Heat Treatment:</strong> The alloy can undergo a P6 heat treatment process to achieve enhanced ductility. This treatment allows for improved performance in applications where flexibility and resistance to cracking are important.</p><p><br></p><p><strong>To sum it up..</strong></p><p>Aluminum alloy AlSi10Mg (3.2382) stands out in metal 3D printing for its high strength, good thermal properties, and excellent processability. Its suitability for aviation, automotive, and prototype applications highlights its versatility and reliability. As industries continue to innovate and push the boundaries of material performance, AlSi10Mg remains a key material, offering a blend of strength, processability, and durability for a wide range of advanced manufacturing needs.</p>

AlSi10Mg (3.2382) is a high-performance material widely used in metal 3D printing for various advanced applications. Let's take an in-depth look at its properties, applications, and mechanical characteristics.

Aluminum AlSi10Mg (3.2382) in Metal 3D Printing: Key Insights

<section id="isPasted"><p><span lang="EN-US" data-contrast="auto">Researchers from the Buchmann Institute for Molecular Life Sciences at Goethe University in Frankfurt am Main, Germany have used the microArch® S140, a microscale 3D printer from&nbsp;</span><a href="https://bmf3d.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><span lang="EN-US" data-contrast="none"><span data-ccp-charstyle="Hyperlink">Boston Micro Fabrication</span><span data-ccp-charstyle="Hyperlink">&nbsp;(BMF)</span></span></a><span lang="EN-US" data-contrast="auto">, to help fabricate miniaturized vessels called hydrowells for culturing 3D cellular spheroids under microgravity conditions. The effort was part of the Spheroid Aggregation and Viability in Space, or SHAPE, <a href="https://www.yurigravity.com/news/experiment-shape">experiment</a>, which is supported by the German Aerospace Center (DLR) and will be performed aboard the International Space Station (ISS), where scientific research is performed in low-earth orbit.</span></p></section><section><h2><span lang="EN-US" data-contrast="auto">Hydrowells and Spheroids for Cell Cultures</span><span data-ccp-props='{"201341983":0,"335551550":6,"335551620":6,"335559739":160,"335559740":276}'>&nbsp;</span></h2><p><span data-contrast="auto">Custom hydrogel well-plates, or hydrowells, are made a with agarose, a polysaccharide. Hydrowells are used instead of plastic or glass vessels for containing spheroids in microgravity. Cellular spheroids are three-dimensional tissue model particularly suitable for applications such as regenerative medicine and cancer research. The hydrowell non-adhesive compartments facilitate media exchange through simple diffusion and provide a fully biocompatible environment. Spheroids, 3D cell cultures that are grown in suspension within individual hydrowells, arrange themselves into sphere-like formations. Hydrowells prevent individual spheroids from aggregating into uncontrolled sizes. &nbsp;</span><span data-ccp-props='{"201341983":0,"335551550":6,"335551620":6,"335559739":160,"335559740":276}'>&nbsp;</span></p><p><span data-contrast="auto">The SHAPE experiment in which the Buchmann Institute for Molecular Life Sciences participated required specially-designed hydrowells with a funnel-shaped entrance, a cylindrical cross-section, and a bottom section that was either U-shaped, conical, or truncated. The shape of this bottom section facilitates spheroid formation and long-term cell culturing. The hydrowells were produced from positive molds, which are convex in shape. Microscale 3D printing was chosen for mold fabrication because it can achieve high resolution, produce smooth surfaces, use high-performance materials, and support rapid development.</span></p><p><span data-contrast="auto"><span class="fr-img-caption fr-fic fr-dib" style="width: 832px;"><span class="fr-img-wrap"><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1734330427710-Slide6.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"><span class="fr-inner">Model of Funnel Shaped Hydrowells</span></span></span></span></p><h2 id="isPasted"><span lang="EN-US" data-contrast="auto">Microscale 3D Printing Equipment and Materials</span><span data-ccp-props='{"201341983":0,"335551550":6,"335551620":6,"335559739":160,"335559740":276}'>&nbsp;</span></h2><p><span data-contrast="auto">The BMF microscale printer that was used, the&nbsp;</span><a href="https://bmf3d.com/10%CE%BCm-series-printers/"><span data-contrast="none">microArch® S140</span></a><span data-contrast="auto">, has an optical resolution of 10 µm and can produce parts with a surface finish of 0.4-0.9 µm Ra (top) and 1.5-2.5 µm Ra (side). The technology that powers the S140, projection micro-stereolithography&nbsp;</span><span data-contrast="auto">(PµSL), provides a degree of smoothness and precision that greatly outperforms that of standard stereolithographic (SLA) printers, which have ~25-50 µm resolution. BMF’s</span><span data-contrast="auto">&nbsp;ultra-high resolution equipment uses engineering-grade photosensitive resins and prints layer thicknesses from 10 µm</span><span data-contrast="auto">~</span><span data-contrast="auto">40 µm. BMF also supports an open material system.</span><span data-ccp-props='{"201341983":0,"335551550":6,"335551620":6,"335559739":160,"335559740":276}'>&nbsp;</span></p><p><a href="https://2oec4j3twl711d5klt43pn63-wpengine.netdna-ssl.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/BMFHT200ResinDatasheet_110321.pdf" data-lf-fd-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true"><span data-contrast="none">BMF HT200</span></a><span data-contrast="auto">&nbsp;resin, the material that was used to produce the positive hydrowell molds, can withstand high temperatures up to 200° C and combines high-strength with durability. This resin’s resistance to high temperatures and pressures supported its use with autoclaving, a form of sterilization, to avoid bacterial contamination of the hydrowells. Layer definition was preserved after autoclaving, and no warping or delamination was observed. Moreover, the thermal and mechanical properties of this 3D printed material ensured the outstanding and consistent quality of the final product.</span><span data-ccp-props='{"201341983":0,"335551550":6,"335551620":6,"335559739":160,"335559740":276}'>&nbsp;</span></p><p><span data-ccp-props='{"201341983":0,"335551550":6,"335551620":6,"335559739":160,"335559740":276}'><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1734330486899-1734330486898.png" class="fr-fic fr-dib"></span></p><h2 id="isPasted"><span lang="EN-US" data-contrast="auto">Resolution, Surface Finish, and Autoclaving</span><span data-ccp-props='{"201341983":0,"335551550":6,"335551620":6,"335559739":160,"335559740":276}'>&nbsp;</span></h2><p><span data-contrast="auto">Dr. Francesco Pampaloni, PhD, tenured staff scientist and principal investigator, led the team at Goethe University and tested the 3D printed parts for use as positive molds in hydrowell fabrication. “The BMF micromolds have a superior resolution and surface finish, which allows the fabrication of high-quality hydrowells to reliably produce spheroids with a consistent size,” Dr. Pampaloni said. He added that the 3D printing material used for the molds can “fully withstand wet autoclaving at 121°C and 2.1 bar, ensuring the sterility of the hydrowells”.</span><span data-ccp-props='{"201341983":0,"335551550":6,"335551620":6,"335559739":160,"335559740":276}'>&nbsp;</span></p></section>

Researchers from the Buchmann Institute for Molecular Life Sciences at Goethe University have used the microArch® S140, a microscale 3D printer from Boston Micro Fabrication, to help fabricate miniaturized vessels called hydrowells for culturing 3D cellular spheroids under microgravity conditions.

Micro 3D Printing Helps Fabricate Microwells for Microgravity

In this guide, we cover all the different types of polymer FDM 3D printing filament, from standard grades like PLA and ABS to advanced high-performance filaments like PEEK and fiber-reinforced materials.

What Material Is Used for 3D Printing? A Guide to Polymer FDM Filaments

<h2 id="isPasted">Understand the Future of Metal 3D Printing</h2><p>The <strong>Metal 3D Printing Technology Report</strong> is your essential guide to the latest advances, applications, and real-world insights into additive manufacturing with metal. Packed with detailed case studies, &nbsp;practical information, and interviews with industry leaders, this report reveals how metal 3D printing is transforming industries and pushing the boundaries of manufacturing.</p><p>Read the intro to the report <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/metal-3d-printing-technology-report">here</a> and an excerpt from chapter 4 below.&nbsp;</p><p><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzM0MzU1MzQwMzQ1LWZyb2FsYV8xNzMzODI4MDI3NzIwLTUrUmlzaW5nK1RyZW5kcytmb3IrQUkrQWRvcHRpb24raW4rTWFudWZhY3R1cmluZysoMTkyMCt4KzUwMCtweCkucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"></p><p><span contenteditable="false" draggable="true" class="fr-video fr-deletable fr-fvc fr-dvb fr-draggable"><iframe id="JotFormIFrame-243032488553458" title="Metal 3D Printing Report" allowtransparency="true" src="https://form.jotform.com/243032488553458" frameborder="0" style="min-width: 100%; max-width: 100%; height: 690px; border: none;" scrolling="yes" class="fr-draggable" data-lf-form-tracking-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-yt-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-vimeo-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true"> </iframe></span></p><h2 dir="ltr">Introduction</h2><p dir="ltr" id="isPasted">Metal 3D printing opens up design opportunities due to its high level of geometrical freedom. However, like all technologies, it requires design for manufacturability (DFM) considerations, taking into account the physical constraints of the equipment and materials. In 3D printing, this design strategy is referred to as design for additive manufacturing (DfAM). Most major CAD software providers provide DfAM tools (as well as 3D printing simulation tools), as 3D printing hardware is now widespread.</p><h3 dir="ltr">Design opportunities</h3><p dir="ltr">Compared to other metal manufacturing processes like machining, casting, and forging, 3D printing offers a number of design advantages, including:</p><ul><li dir="ltr"><p dir="ltr">Design freedom: Designs are unhindered by cutting tool access and other conventional manufacturing constraints; limitations (e.g. support structures to support overhangs) are minimal in comparison.</p><ul><li dir="ltr"><p dir="ltr">Multi-axis design freedom: Some DED systems offer multi-axis material deposition, enabling printing of unsupported overhangs and further design freedom.</p></li></ul></li><li dir="ltr"><p dir="ltr">Internal structures: Additive process allows for complex internal geometries and precise density control, giving a high level of control over part strength, weight, flexibility, and other characteristics, as well as allowing for cooling and fluid flow channels.</p></li><li dir="ltr"><p dir="ltr">Lightweighting: Partly hollow designs allow for lightweighting of parts that would otherwise be conventionally manufactured.</p></li><li dir="ltr"><p dir="ltr">Organic shapes: Generative design software can create complex, interlocking, or curved parts that mimic organic shapes.</p></li><li dir="ltr"><p dir="ltr">Part consolidation: Metal 3D printing can be used to consolidate assemblies into simple parts, increasing production efficiency, improving performance, and increasing part service life.</p></li></ul><h3 dir="ltr">Design limitations</h3><p dir="ltr">Metal 3D printing offers a high level of design freedom, but it suffers from a handful of limitations. Some of these are technology-specific. For example, design for metal extrusion is governed by the limitations of both polymer extrusion printing and part sintering. Some limitations in metal 3D printing design include:</p><ul><li dir="ltr"><p dir="ltr">Thermal stresses: Since most metal 3D printing technologies require high temperatures, part design must minimize thermal stresses. This may be achieved by introducing corner radii, avoiding thin sections, etc.</p></li><li dir="ltr"><p dir="ltr">Shrinkage: Several metal 3D printing technologies require sintering, which results in part shrinkage as voids are removed. This should be factored into design to ensure part dimensions fall within acceptance tolerances.</p></li><li dir="ltr"><p dir="ltr">Trapped powder: Powder bed processes can result in powder trapped within hollow sections unless design allows the powder to escape.</p></li><li dir="ltr"><p dir="ltr">Overhangs, bridges, supports: Supports are often required to support overhangs and bridges. Top-heavy or unbalanced designs may sag or deform during sintering or heat treatment.</p></li><li dir="ltr"><p dir="ltr">Feature size: Processes like extrusion and binder jetting have a limited minimum feature size.</p></li></ul><h2 dir="ltr">Tools for DfAM</h2><p dir="ltr">Advanced CAD software may include tools for metal 3D printing design such as design validation, performance analysis, lattice generation, and topology optimization. Simulation tools for validating designs may be incorporated into CAD, CAE, CAM, or distinct process simulation software. Simulation of 3D printing processes typically involves advanced thermal modeling. Research shows that both topology optimization and generative design tools can be adopted at the early stages of 3D printing design to either create a geometry driven by functional requirements or to redesign components to make them lighter and stronger.</p><h3 dir="ltr">Generative design</h3><p dir="ltr">Generative design is the use of algorithmic software to create novel designs based on user-defined constraints. It is generally employed during the conceptual design stage. While generative design is not unique to metal 3D printing, metal 3D printing is one of the few processes that can easily realize a broad range of generated designs. Altair Sulis is one example of a DfAM tool that uses generative design to generate AM-optimized designs.</p><p dir="ltr"><span class="fr-img-caption fr-fic fr-dib" style="width: 832px;"><span class="fr-img-wrap"><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzMzOTI3NjEzOTgwLWRlc2lnbiBmb3IgbWV0YWwucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"><span class="fr-inner">3D Systems company Oqton’s 3DXpert industrial 3D printing software. Image credit:&nbsp;<a href="https://oqton.com/posts/3dxpert-space-exploration/" id="isPasted">Oqton</a></span></span></span></p><h3 dir="ltr">Topology optimization</h3><p dir="ltr">Topology optimization is a design strategy for optimizing the structure of a printed part, generally to reduce weight while maintaining strength. Unlike generative design, it is used to optimize specified shapes instead of creating designs from scratch. As with generative design, however, the freeform nature of 3D printing means that most designs can be realized. Software such as 3D Systems 3DXpert provides topology optimization tools for metal printing.</p><h3 dir="ltr">Lattice generation</h3><p dir="ltr">Lattice structures are a key feature of metal 3D printing as they serve to maximize strength and minimize mass and cannot easily be produced using other manufacturing processes. Software can be used to automatically generate printable lattice structures within predefined boundaries. Siemens NX CAD is an example of an application that incorporates lattice generation for metal 3D printing design.</p><h2 dir="ltr">Get your report now</h2><p><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzM0MzU1MzYzODAxLWZyb2FsYV8xNzMzODI4MDI3NzIwLTUrUmlzaW5nK1RyZW5kcytmb3IrQUkrQWRvcHRpb24raW4rTWFudWZhY3R1cmluZysoMTkyMCt4KzUwMCtweCkucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"></p><p dir="ltr" id="isPasted"><span contenteditable="false" draggable="true" class="fr-video fr-deletable fr-fvc fr-dvb fr-draggable"><iframe id="JotFormIFrame-243032488553458" title="Metal 3D Printing Report" allowtransparency="true" src="https://form.jotform.com/243032488553458" frameborder="0" style="min-width:100%;max-width:100%;height:690px;border:none;" scrolling="yes" class="fr-draggable" data-lf-form-tracking-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-yt-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-vimeo-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true"> </iframe></span></p><h2 id="isPasted">Read an excerpt from the chapters here:</h2><h3><a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/metal-3d-printing-technology-report">Introduction Chapter</a></h3><p><a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/metal-3d-printing-technology-report"><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzM1NTUzNzExNzM2LTEucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" class="fr-fic fr-dii"></a></p><p>The <strong>Metal 3D Printing Technology Report</strong> is your essential guide to the latest advances, applications, and real-world insights into additive manufacturing with metal.</p><p><a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/metal-3d-printing-technology-report" class="button-main-action">READ THE CHAPTER</a></p><p><a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/chapter-1-core-metal-3d-printing-technologies"><strong>Chapter 1</strong></a></p><p><strong><a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/chapter-1-core-metal-3d-printing-technologies"><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzM1NTUzODI3ODU0LTIucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" class="fr-fic fr-dii"></a></strong></p><p>In the first chapter of our new report, we examine the dominant methods of metal 3D printing—metal laser powder bed fusion (LPBF), directed energy deposition (DED), metal extrusion, and binder jetting—as well as other still-emerging or more niche processes.</p><p><a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/chapter-1-core-metal-3d-printing-technologies" class="button-main-action">READ THE CHAPTER</a></p><p><a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/the-metal-3d-printing-technology-report-chapter-1-core-metal-3d-printing-technologies"><strong>Chapter 2</strong></a></p><p><a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/the-metal-3d-printing-technology-report-chapter-1-core-metal-3d-printing-technologies"><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzM1NTUzODU2ODcxLTMucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" class="fr-fic fr-dii"></a></p><p>The metal additive manufacturing market features various feedstock types, with powder being the dominant choice for LPBF, some DED methods, and binder jetting. Metal wire and bound metal filament are also used in specific technologies.</p><p><a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/the-metal-3d-printing-technology-report-chapter-1-core-metal-3d-printing-technologies" class="button-main-action">READ THE CHAPTER</a></p><p><a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/the-metal-3d-printing-technology-report-chapter-3-post-processing-for-metal-am"><strong>Chapter 3</strong></a></p><p><a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/the-metal-3d-printing-technology-report-chapter-3-post-processing-for-metal-am"><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzM1NTUzOTAwNjk0LTQucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" class="fr-fic fr-dii"></a></p><p>In this chapter, we separate metal AM post-processing into four categories: debinding and sintering, CNC machining and milling, heat treatment, and quality assurance.</p><p><a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/the-metal-3d-printing-technology-report-chapter-3-post-processing-for-metal-am" class="button-main-action">READ THE CHAPTER</a></p><p><strong>Chapter 4</strong></p><p><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzM1NTUzOTIwMjg2LTUucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" class="fr-fic fr-dii"></p><p>Metal 3D printing offers significant design opportunities with its high geometrical freedom, but it requires careful design for additive manufacturing (DfAM) to address equipment and material constraints, a process supported by DfAM and 3D printing simulation tools in most major CAD software.</p><p><a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/the-metal-3d-printing-technology-report-chapter-4-design-for-metal-3d-printing"></a></p><p><a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/applications-of-metal-additive-manufacturing"><strong>Chapter 5</strong></a></p><p><a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/applications-of-metal-additive-manufacturing"><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzM1NTUzOTUwMTY1LTYucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" class="fr-fic fr-dii"></a></p><p>This chapter of the report will lay out and examine the various applications of metal additive manufacturing, with a particular focus on end-use applications in the dominant metal AM adoption industries.</p><p><a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/applications-of-metal-additive-manufacturing" class="button-main-action">READ THE CHAPTER</a></p>

Metal 3D printing offers significant design opportunities with its high geometrical freedom, but it requires careful design for additive manufacturing (DfAM) to address equipment and material constraints, a process supported by DfAM and 3D printing simulation tools in most major CAD software.

The Metal 3D Printing Technology Report: Chapter 4: Design for Metal 3D printing

From entry-level FDM machines to industrial-grade metal printers, this guide demystifies the many types of 3D printers available to businesses and consumers.

Types of 3D Printers: The Ultimate Guide to Additive Manufacturing Technologies

<p id="isPasted">Plastic injection molding is a transformative process that turns raw polymer pellets into essential parts for industries worldwide. Among the numerous factors influencing mold design and production quality, <strong>Melt Flow Rate (MFR)</strong> stands out as a key characteristic that moldmakers must understand and optimize.</p><p><strong>Why Melt Flow Rate Matters</strong></p><p>MFR measures the ease with which a polymer flows under specific conditions of temperature and pressure. While it is often evaluated alongside Melt Flow Index (MFI), the MFR is particularly relevant in high-shear environments like injection molding. It provides insights into:</p><ul type="disc"><li><strong>Material Fluidity</strong>: High MFR polymers flow like water, enabling intricate part geometries. Low MFR polymers, resembling the viscosity of honey or concrete, demand greater force to fill the mold.</li><li><strong>Process Consistency</strong>: A stable MFR ensures uniformity between production batches, reducing defects and waste.</li><li><strong>Compatibility</strong>: Knowing the MFR helps match polymers to specific molding machines and processes.</li></ul><p>Understanding MFR allows moldmakers to anticipate flow behavior, ensuring precise gate sizing, optimal venting, and appropriate runner systems.</p><p><strong>MFR in Mold Design and Manufacturing</strong></p><p>When starting a mold project, evaluating MFR helps answer critical design questions, such as:</p><ol start="1" type="1"><li>How will the polymer flow through the mold?</li><li>Can the mold handle variations in flow due to additives or fillers?</li><li>What cycle time is achievable with the selected material?</li></ol><p>For example, polymers with high MFR are suited for thin-walled parts but may require tighter tolerances in vents and gates to prevent flash. In contrast, low MFR polymers are better for parts requiring high strength but may increase cycle times due to their slower flow.</p><p><strong>Shear and Viscosity: The Bigger Picture</strong></p><p>While MFR provides a baseline for understanding polymer behavior, moldmakers must also consider how shear and viscosity interact. Shear, the sliding of polymer layers against each other, directly affects the viscosity during the molding process.</p><ul type="disc"><li><strong>High Shear Rates</strong>: These typically lower polymer viscosity, making flow easier but increasing the risk of defects like gate blush or material degradation.</li><li><strong>Low Shear Rates</strong>: Maintain material integrity but may struggle to fill complex geometries, especially with low MFR polymers.</li></ul><p>Thus, MFR serves as a foundational metric, but it must be paired with shear and viscosity data for comprehensive mold design.</p><p><strong>From Pellet to Part: Optimizing the Process</strong></p><p>By integrating MFR data with mold flow simulations, moldmakers can predict and mitigate production challenges. These simulations help identify critical factors such as:</p><ul type="disc"><li><strong>Knit line locations</strong></li><li><strong>Optimal press size</strong></li><li><strong>Cycle efficiency</strong></li></ul><p>The goal is to harmonize all components of the process, from the injection screw to the cooling system, for maximum reliability and performance.</p><p><strong>A Competitive Edge with MFR Expertise</strong></p><p>MFR knowledge empowers moldmakers to deliver solutions tailored to specific materials and applications. For instance, understanding the limitations and potential of MFR helps prevent costly redesigns, ensures consistent part quality, and strengthens customer trust.</p><p><strong>Conclusion</strong><br>Melt Flow Rate isn’t just a technical metric; it’s a gateway to smarter, more efficient mold design. By leveraging MFR alongside other material properties, moldmakers can enhance part performance, reduce production errors, and stay competitive in a demanding market. For more details, please visit us at <a href="http://www.apsx.com" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">www.apsx.com</a>.&nbsp;</p>

Among the numerous factors influencing mold design and production quality, Melt Flow Rate (MFR) stands out as a key characteristic that mold makers must understand and optimize.

The Journey from Pellet to Part: Mastering Melt Flow Rate in Injection Molding

Thought3D Ltd-Fri Jun 30 2023 23:59:59 GMT+0200 (Central European Summer Time)

Thought3D Ltd-Mon Jul 31 2023 23:59:59 GMT+0300 (Eastern European Summer Time)

Thought3D Ltd-Thu Aug 31 2023 23:59:59 GMT+0300 (Eastern European Summer Time)

Thought3D Ltd-Thu Aug 31 2023 23:59:59 GMT+0200 (Central European Summer Time)

Thought3D Ltd-Sat Sep 30 2023 23:59:59 GMT+0300 (Eastern European Summer Time)

Mitsubishi Chemical Group-Fri Jun 30 2023 23:59:59 GMT+0200 (Central European Summer Time)

Mitsubishi Chemical Group-Mon Jul 31 2023 23:59:59 GMT+0300 (Eastern European Summer Time)

Mitsubishi Chemical Group-Thu Aug 31 2023 23:59:59 GMT+0200 (Central European Summer Time)

Mitsubishi Chemical Group-Thu Aug 31 2023 23:59:59 GMT+0300 (Eastern European Summer Time)

Mitsubishi Chemical Group-Sat Sep 30 2023 23:59:59 GMT+0300 (Eastern European Summer Time)

Mitsubishi Chemical Group-Tue Oct 31 2023 23:59:59 GMT+0200 (Eastern European Standard Time)

BASF Forward AM-Fri Jun 30 2023 23:59:59 GMT+0200 (Central European Summer Time)

BASF Forward AM-Mon Jul 31 2023 23:59:59 GMT+0300 (Eastern European Summer Time)

BASF Forward AM-Thu Aug 31 2023 23:59:59 GMT+0300 (Eastern European Summer Time)

BASF Forward AM-Thu Aug 31 2023 23:59:59 GMT+0200 (Central European Summer Time)

BASF Forward AM-Sat Sep 30 2023 23:59:59 GMT+0300 (Eastern European Summer Time)

UltiMaker-Fri Jun 30 2023 23:59:59 GMT+0200 (Central European Summer Time)

UltiMaker-Mon Jul 31 2023 23:59:59 GMT+0300 (Eastern European Summer Time)

UltiMaker-Thu Aug 31 2023 23:59:59 GMT+0300 (Eastern European Summer Time)

UltiMaker-Thu Aug 31 2023 23:59:59 GMT+0200 (Central European Summer Time)

UltiMaker-Sat Sep 30 2023 23:59:59 GMT+0300 (Eastern European Summer Time)

UltiMaker-Tue Oct 31 2023 23:59:59 GMT+0200 (Eastern European Standard Time)

AKIRA Science-Fri Jun 30 2023 23:59:59 GMT+0200 (Central European Summer Time)

AKIRA Science-Mon Jul 31 2023 23:59:59 GMT+0300 (Eastern European Summer Time)

AKIRA Science-Thu Aug 31 2023 23:59:59 GMT+0300 (Eastern European Summer Time)

AKIRA Science-Thu Aug 31 2023 23:59:59 GMT+0200 (Central European Summer Time)

AKIRA Science-Sat Sep 30 2023 23:59:59 GMT+0300 (Eastern European Summer Time)

Bits to Atoms-Fri Jun 30 2023 23:59:59 GMT+0200 (Central European Summer Time)

Bits to Atoms-Mon Jul 31 2023 23:59:59 GMT+0300 (Eastern European Summer Time)

Bits to Atoms-Thu Aug 31 2023 23:59:59 GMT+0300 (Eastern European Summer Time)

Bits to Atoms-Thu Aug 31 2023 23:59:59 GMT+0200 (Central European Summer Time)

Bits to Atoms-Sat Sep 30 2023 23:59:59 GMT+0300 (Eastern European Summer Time)

Akenza-Fri Jun 30 2023 23:59:59 GMT+0200 (Central European Summer Time)

Akenza-Mon Jul 31 2023 23:59:59 GMT+0300 (Eastern European Summer Time)

Akenza-Thu Aug 31 2023 23:59:59 GMT+0300 (Eastern European Summer Time)

Akenza-Thu Aug 31 2023 23:59:59 GMT+0200 (Central European Summer Time)

Akenza-Sat Sep 30 2023 23:59:59 GMT+0300 (Eastern European Summer Time)

materials

ABS creates great prints with the right speed settings

As one of the most durable low-cost filaments, ABS is an essential material for most 3D printer users. But ABS print speed can be a limitation on productivity.

ABS Print Speed Limits and Other Considerations

What is TPU filament? In short, it is the most common flexible 3D printing material

What is TPU filament? Thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) is one of the most practical and affordable 3D printing materials for making flexible parts. This article looks at how and why to print it.

Materials

Profiles