An international team of researchers, led by the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nanoengineering.eng.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank">NanoEngineering Group</a> at the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.graphene.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank">Cambridge Graphene Centre</a>, has developed a new materials theory based on ‘Murray’s Law’, applicable to a wide range of next-generation functional materials, with applications in everything from rechargeable batteries to high-performance gas sensors. The&nbsp;<a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-47833-0" target="_blank">findings</a> are reported in the journal&nbsp;Nature Communications.Murray’s Law, put forward by Cecil D. Murray in 1926, describes how natural vascular structures, such as animal blood vessels and veins in plant leaves, efficiently transport fluids with minimum energy expenditure.“But whereas this traditional theory works for cylindrical pore structures, it often struggles for synthetic networks with diverse shapes – a bit like trying to fit a square peg into a round hole,” says first author Cambridge PhD student&nbsp;<a href="https://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/profiles/bz279" target="_blank">Binghan Zhou</a>.Dubbed ‘Universal Murray’s Law’, the researchers’ new theory bridges the gap between biological vessels and artificial materials and is expected to benefit energy and environmental applications.“The original Murray’s Law was formulated by minimising the energy consumption to maintain the laminar flow in blood vessels, but it was unsuited for synthetic materials,” says Binghan Zhou.“To broaden its applicability to synthetic materials, we expanded this Law by considering the flow resistance in hierarchical channels. Our proposed Universal Murray’s Law works for the pores of any shape and suits all common transfer types, including laminar flow, diffusion, and ionic migration.”Ranging from daily usage to industrial production, many applications involve ion or mass transfer processes through highly porous materials – applications that could benefit from Universal Murray’s Law, say the researchers.For instance, when charging or discharging batteries, ions physically move between the electrodes through a porous barrier. Gas sensors rely on the diffusion of gas molecules through porous materials. Chemical industries often use catalytic reactions, involving laminar flow of reactants through catalysts.“Employing this new biophysical law could greatly reduce the flow resistance in the above processes, boosting overall efficiency,” adds Binghan Zhou.The researchers proved their theory using graphene aerogel, a material known for its extraordinary porosity. They carefully varied the pore sizes and shapes by controlling the growth of ice crystals within the material. Their experiments showed that the microscopic channels following the newly proposed Universal Murray’s Law offer minimum resistance against fluid flow, while deviations from this Law increase the flow resistance.“We designed a scaled-down hierarchical model for numerical simulation and found that simple shape changes following the proposed Law indeed reduce the flow resistance,” says co-author&nbsp;<a href="https://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/profiles/dl359" target="_blank">Dongfang Liang</a>, Professor of Hydrodynamics at the Department of Engineering.The team also demonstrated the practical value of Universal Murray’s Law by optimising a porous gas sensor. The sensor, designed in accordance with the Law, shows a significantly faster response compared to sensors following a porous hierarchy, traditionally considered to be highly efficient.“The only difference between the two structures is a slight variation in shape, showing the power and ease of application of our proposed Law,” says Binghan Zhou.“We have incorporated this special natural Law into synthetic materials,” adds&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nanoengineering.eng.cam.ac.uk/people" target="_blank">Tawfique Hasan</a>, Professor of Nanoengineering at the Cambridge Graphene Centre, who led the research. “This could be an important step towards theory-guided structural design of functional porous materials. We hope our work will be important for new generation porous materials and contribute to applications for a sustainable future.”The research was funded by the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC). Professor Hasan is a Fellow of Churchill College, Cambridge.<hr>Reference: Binghan Zhou et al. ‘<a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-47833-0" target="_blank">Universal Murray’s law for optimised fluid transport in synthetic structures</a>’ . Nature Communications (2024). DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-47833-0

A macro photo of the veins of a leaf  Credit: MLARANDA from Pixabay

The natural vein structure found within leaves – which has inspired the structural design of porous materials that can maximise mass transfer – could unlock improvements in energy storage, catalysis, and sensing thanks to a new twist on a century-old biophysical law.

Bio-inspired materials' potential for efficient mass transfer boosted by a new twist on a century-old theory

What factors determine how quickly a battery can be charged? Researchers at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) are investigating these and other questions using computer-aided simulations. Microstructure models help to discover and investigate new electrode materials. For sodium-nickel-manganese oxide as cathode material in sodium-ion batteries, the simulations show changes in the crystal structure during the charging process. They lead to elastic deformation, which shrinks the capacity. The researchers report in the journal&nbsp;npj Computational Materials . (&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41524-024-01258-x" target="_blank">DOI: 10.1038/s41524-024-01258-x</a> )&nbsp;Research into new battery materials is not only aimed at optimizing performance and service life and reducing costs. Rather, it is also about reducing rare elements such as lithium and cobalt as well as toxic components. Sodium-ion batteries, which are based on similar principles to lithium-ion batteries but can be produced from raw materials that are sufficiently available in Europe, are considered promising. They are suitable for stationary and mobile applications. “Layered oxides such as sodium-nickel-manganese oxides are promising as materials for the cathode,” reports Dr. Simon Daubner, group leader at the Institute for Applied Materials – Microstructure Modeling and Simulation (IAM-MMS) at KIT and corresponding author of the study. In the Cluster of Excellence POLiS (stands for:&nbsp;Post Lithium Storage ) he researches sodium ion technology.<h2>Mechanical stress occurs during fast charging</h2>However, there is a problem with these cathode materials: sodium-nickel-manganese oxides change their crystal structure depending on how much sodium is currently stored. If the material is loaded slowly, everything goes smoothly. “The sodium comes out of the material layer by layer – like in a parking garage that is emptying floor by floor,” explains Daubner. “But if things have to happen quickly, the sodium is pulled out from all sides.” This leads to mechanical stresses that can permanently damage the material.&nbsp;Researchers at the Institute for Nanotechnology (INT) and at the IAM-MMS at KIT, together with scientists at the University of Ulm and at the Center for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research Baden-Württemberg (ZSW), have now uncovered these connections using simulations and are reporting about it in npj Computational Materials, a journal from the Nature portfolio.<h2>Experiments confirm simulation results</h2>“Computer models can describe different length scales, from the arrangement of atoms in electrode materials to their microstructure to the cell as a functional unit of every battery,” says Daubner. These combine microstructure models with slow charge and discharge experiments to investigate the layered oxide NaXNi1/3Mn2/3O2. The material has several degradation mechanisms that lead to loss of capacity. Therefore, it is currently not suitable for commercial applications. When the crystal structure changes, elastic deformation occurs. The crystal shrinks, which can cause cracks and reduce available capacity. As simulations carried out at INT and IAM-MMS showed, this mechanical influence is so strong that it significantly influences how quickly the material can be loaded. Experimental studies at ZSW confirmed the results.The findings gained in the study can partly be transferred to other layered oxides. “Now that we understand the basic processes, we can devote further work to developing battery materials that are long-lasting and can be charged as quickly as possible,” summarizes Daubner. This could make the large-scale use of sodium-ion batteries a reality in five to ten years.<hr>Original publication (Open Access):Simon Daubner, Manuel Dillenz, Lukas Fridolin Pfeiffer, Cornelius Gauckler, Maxim Rosin, Nora Burgard, Jan Martin, Peter Axmann, Mohsen Sotoudeh, Axel Groß, Daniel Schneider, Britta Nestler: Combined study of phase transitions in the P2-type NaXNi1/3Mn2 /3O2 cathode material: experimental, ab-initio and multiphase-field results. npj Computational Materials, 2024. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41524-024-01258-x" target="_blank">DOI: 10.1038/s41524-024-01258-x</a><a href="https://www.postlithiumstorage.org/" target="_blank">Information about the Cluster of Excellence POLiS</a>

Cathode layer, consisting of spherical particles, as well as simulation of the sodium content. (detailed caption at the end of the text. Graphics: Simon Daubner, KIT)

Microstructure simulations reveal strong influence of elastic deformation on charging behavior of layered oxides as cathode in sodium-ion batteries

Batteries: Modeling tomorrow's materials today

As the world continues to embrace the Internet of Things (IoT), the demand for efficient power management solutions for IoT devices is on the rise. 

What Are the Best Applications for IoT in the New World of IC Power Management?

Choosing the optimal battery technology is pivotal to avoid future consequences. This comprehensive guide delves into the intricacies that distinguish NiMH and Lithium Ion batteries – their fundamental properties, performance across applications, etc. and equips readers for informed decision-making.

NiMH vs Lithium Ion Batteries: A Comprehensive Comparison for Engineers

Consider the following details when conducting power profiling:<ol start="1" type="1"><li>Hardware and sensor configurations: Analyze the components and sensors used in the device and their power consumption characteristics.&nbsp;Understand how different hardware configurations impact energy usage.</li><li>Firmware settings: Examine the firmware settings and configurations to identify any potential areas where power consumption can be optimized. Adjust settings and parameters to achieve more efficient power usage.</li><li>Communication parameters: Evaluate the communication parameters used by the device, such as transmission frequency and data rate. Analyze how different communication settings affect power consumption and battery life.</li><li>Use cases and corner cases: Consider the different use cases and scenarios in which the device will be deployed. Investigate how the device's behavior and power consumption vary under different conditions. Pay special attention to corner cases that may have unique power consumption patterns.</li></ol>Continuous benchmarking is crucial throughout the product development process. Utilize UART clever printouts and correlate them with power consumption to identify specific components or features that may be draining energy. This analysis will provide valuable insights on areas that can be optimized for improved power efficiency. Remember to turn off UART once the analysis is complete to avoid any impact on the final product.Additionally, consider network variables that can impact power consumption. Import network log files to understand how factors like distance to the gateway or Node B, weather conditions, and device density within the network influence power consumption. These variables can significantly affect how the battery is drained and should be taken into account when estimating battery life.By iteratively calculating battery life based on power consumption profiles throughout the development project, developers gain valuable knowledge and intuition about the factors that affect the power profile. This understanding allows them to maintain the desired power profile despite changes in the development stack, ensuring optimal power usage and battery life.<h2>Refined battery selection with battery profiling</h2>Understanding the power consumption behavior of an IoT device goes beyond relying solely on data sheet information. It involves conducting a critical analysis to assess the battery's performance in the unique scenario relevant to your project. This process provides insights into the battery's efficiency, stability, and suitability for the deployment.<h2 id="isPasted">Defining a Battery Profile</h2>A battery profile is not just a general overview; it is a tailored description of how a battery discharges under specific loads in particular environments. You can find such profiles in the battery's data sheets. To select the ideal battery for your solution, you need to <a href="https://www.qoitech.com/battery-toolbox/" target="_blank">create profiles</a> that align with your device's power requirements. Additionally, it is beneficial to profile several battery alternatives from different brands, batches, and temperatures to gain a thorough understanding of their behavior.<img border="0" width="605" src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1713351007606-1713351007606.jpeg" alt="En bild som visar skärmbild, Multimedieprogram, programvara, GrafikprogramvaraAutomatiskt genererad beskrivning" class="fr-fic fr-dii">By following these steps, you can gain a deeper understanding of the power consumption behavior of your IoT device and make informed decisions when selecting the most appropriate battery for your project.<h2>Accelerated Battery Profile</h2>To create a battery discharge profile that aligns with your device's current consumption profile, you may need several months or even years. Thus, it is essential to develop an accelerated discharge profile. Here are some best practices to create an accurate and helpful profile:Maintain High Discharge Consistency: Coin cell batteries are particularly sensitive to high discharge, so it is crucial to match your device's peak current. Lithium-ion rechargeable batteries can withstand higher discharge currents, while alkaline batteries fall in between.Shorten Cycle Time: Determine the low discharge time the battery requires to recover.Increase Sleep Current: Ensure the battery can recover even in high discharge. Consult with Manufacturers: Seek assistance from battery manufacturers to verify your assumptions for the batteries you want to profile.<h2>Accuracy Considerations</h2>It's worth noting that precisely matching the discharged energy in the accelerated profile to the original profile may not be feasible, which could affect the profile's accuracy. The less acceleration used, the more accurate the results, but this method's level of accuracy is usually adequate for IoT implementations. It ensures a comprehensive real-world understanding of the battery's performance, contributing to successful IoT solutions.<h2>Profiling Different Battery Chemistries</h2>Here is an example from a customer case with LoRaWAN waste management IoT device. For this specific application, we profiled two distinct electro-chemistries encompassing six brands, including multiple samples from each brand. The profiling was carried out at room temperature, using an accelerated battery profile developed with input from battery manufacturers. Comparing samples from multiple manufacturers allowed us to evaluate how different form factors and chemical compositions influenced the results. Profiling the batteries in various environments could be the next logical step to observe the available capacity deviation from these controlled profiles, given that the profiling occurred at room temperature.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1713351055997-otii-arc-battery-profiling.png" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Battery profiling set-up with Otii Arc ProBattery Profile AnalysisLM17500: Three samples of this battery were profiled, yielding an average capacity of approximately 3050 mAh before reaching the cut-off point, slightly higher than the data sheet capacity of 3000 mAh.CR123A: Two batteries were profiled, with an average capacity of about 1600 mAh, consistent with the data sheet for that specific temperature.Interestingly, alkaline batteries exhibited significant variations in available capacity based on the manufacturer, which is a crucial consideration if customers will be responsible for battery replacement.AAA: These batteries had capacities ranging from 1080 to 1150 mAh, with an average of around 1100 mAh. The data sheet indicated a capacity of 1200 mAh.AA: The AA batteries showed a wider range of capacities, from 2420 to 2730 mAh, with an average of approximately 2590 mAh. For example, the data sheet for Varta indicated a capacity of 2950 mAh.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1713351084975-battery.png" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Batteries profiled in this studyOur profiling process identified performance nuances across different battery brands, chemistries, and form factors. These insights are crucial for making informed decisions specific to the device and use case, going beyond the data sheet capacities. Conducting profiling in diverse environmental conditions, particularly temperature, could further enhance our understanding and contribute to a more resilient IoT device design. You want to see more details from this study? Download the <a href="https://www.qoitech.com/whitepaper/powering-iot-devices/" target="_blank" id="isPasted">white paper</a>.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1713351110704-picture6.png" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Battery profiles graphed for lithium manganese batteries from Saft and GP.&nbsp;<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1713351132266-picture7.png" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Battery profiles graphed for alkaline batteries (AA and AAA) from five different brands.<h2 id="isPasted">Replaying the Battery Profiles</h2>Accurately measured battery profiles provide a more realistic and tailored understanding of the battery's capacity for a specific application, surpassing the information provided in mere data sheets when estimating battery life. By directly applying the profiled battery discharge to the device instead of using a standard power supply, you can determine the actual usable capacity and further enhance the accuracy of the estimation. The actual usable capacity depends on the behavior of the device itself, and in some cases, we have encountered as low as 20% of the measured capacity. Tools such as <a href="https://www.qoitech.com/otii-ace/" target="_blank">Otii Ace Pro</a> with <a href="https://www.qoitech.com/battery-toolbox/" target="_blank">Battery Toolbox</a> can replicate these battery profiles, effectively serving as profiled batteries for the IoT device. By adjusting the used capacity in the battery emulator of these instrumentsand monitoring when the device either shuts down or reboots, you can uncover the true, realistic usable capacity. This ensures a more precise understanding of the battery's potential in the context of the specific application.<img border="0" width="605" src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1713351148170-1713351148170.png" alt="Battery emulation with OtiiBattery Toolbox. MEasured and saved battery profile can be replayed to mimic the actual usable capacity and battery behaviour." class="fr-fic fr-dii">Battery emulation with Otii Battery Toolbox<h2>Conclusion</h2>We propose a technique for selecting the ideal battery: initial selection based on a defined use case and data sheet, power profiling of the IoT device and the battery for the use case, and a refined battery selection using device power behavior to assess the battery's real-world performance for the specific use case and device. This nuanced approach enables developers to make well-informed decisions that boost battery life.

Once the first prototype of your IoT device becomes available, it is essential to start power profiling and estimating battery life. This process involves gaining a comprehensive understanding of the device's configuration and power consumption characteristics within its specific deployment context.

How to pick the right battery for an IoT device: A waste management case study

New chemistries for batteries, semiconductors and more could be easier to manufacture, thanks to a new approach to making chemically complex materials that researchers at the University of Michigan and Samsung’s Advanced Materials Lab have demonstrated.&nbsp;Their new recipes use unconventional ingredients to make battery materials with fewer impurities, requiring fewer costly refinement steps and increasing their economic viability.“Over the past two decades, many battery materials with enhanced capacity, charging speed and stability have been designed computationally, but have not made it to market,” said <a href="https://mse.engin.umich.edu/people/whsun" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wenhao Sun</a>, the Dow Early Career Professor of Materials Science and Engineering at U-M and the corresponding author of the study published in Nature Synthesis.<iframe width="640" height="360" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/9WxUQoFuEWs?&amp;wmode=opaque&amp;rel=0&amp;enablejsapi=1&amp;origin=https://www.wevolver.com" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="" class="fr-draggable" data-lf-form-tracking-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-yt-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-vimeo-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true"></iframe>“A lot of times, a simple material is a good starting point, but when you add a little bit of compound A and a little bit of compound B, magic happens and you get big improvements in capacity or charging rate. However, these chemically complex materials are often difficult to manufacture at scale with high purity.”Battery materials are typically made by mixing several different oxide powders and firing them in an oven. However, these powders react in a sequence rather than all at the same time. The first two ingredients to react are usually those that release the most energy upon reacting. The first reaction results in an intermediate compound that then reacts with the remaining powder, and so on, until no more reactions are possible.If the chemical bonds in the intermediate compounds are difficult to break, they might not fully react with the other ingredients. When they don’t fully react, the intermediates hang around as undesired impurities in the final material.“We designed a strategy to make impurity-free materials more reliably,” said <a href="https://mse.engin.umich.edu/people/jiadongc" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jiadong Chen</a>, the first author of the study and a U-M doctoral student in materials science and engineering and scientific computing. “The trick is to only work with two ingredients at a time, and deliberately make unstable intermediates that will react completely with the remaining ingredients.”To test this strategy, Sun’s team designed 224 different recipes to create 35 different known materials containing elements used in today’s batteries and next-generation ‘beyond-lithium’ batteries.&nbsp;The researchers then partnered with Samsung Semiconductor’s Advanced Materials Lab in Cambridge, Massachusetts, to test if their recipes produced these 35 materials with fewer impurities than conventional recipes. Samsung’s automated robotic lab can synthesize up to 24 different battery materials every 72 hours.Robotic arms handle the ingredients and operate the lab equipment that assesses the purity of the resulting materials. Meanwhile, computers automatically record the results of each experiment, creating a database that researchers can use to determine which recipes worked best.“With the automatic lab, we could broadly test our hypothesis on diverse battery chemistries,” Chen said.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1712996666658-battery-materials-featured-1920x1081+%281%29.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">ASTRAL, Samsung’s robotic lab, uses automated robotic arms to manipulate lab equipment, reagents and samples. As the lab makes battery materials according to a pre-programmed recipe, it automatically records data on the quality of the materials along the way. The records allow researchers to evaluate a large number of recipes in a reproducible manner. Photo credit: Advanced Materials Lab, Samsung Advanced Institute of Technology-America, Samsung Semiconductor.The experiments confirmed that the new recipes with ingredients designed to be unstable tended to produce cleaner products. The new recipes improved the materials’ purity by up to 80%, and six of the target materials could only be made with new recipes.Blueprints for the robotic lab were detailed in the team’s report, which Sun hopes will enable more chemistry labs to adopt robotic labs for both science and materials manufacturing.“We need more data—not just from successful recipes but also the unsuccessful ones—to improve materials manufacturing strategies. More robotic labs will help generate the needed data,” Sun said.These labs are within reach for most research institutions and could significantly speed up materials development, the researchers say.“The startup cost for the robotic equipment is about $120,000—not as high as you might think. But the payoffs in throughput, reliability and data-management are invaluable,” said study co-author Yan Eric Wang, principal engineer and project manager of Samsung’s Advanced Materials Lab.

Mixing unconventional ingredients in just the right order can make complex materials with fewer impurities. The robotic lab that tested the idea could be widely adopted.

Better battery manufacturing: Robotic lab vets new reaction design strategy

Lower-income communities across the United States have long been much slower to adopt solar power than their affluent neighbors, even when local and federal agencies offer tax breaks and other financial incentives.But, commercial and industrial rooftops, such as those atop retail buildings and factories, offer a big opportunity to reduce what researchers call the “solar equity gap,” according to <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41560-024-01485-y" data-extlink="" target="_blank">a new study</a>, published in Nature Energy and led by researchers at Stanford University.“The solar equity gap is a serious problem in disadvantaged communities, in part because of income inequalities, but also because residential solar isn’t usually practical for people who don’t own their homes,” said <a href="https://profiles.stanford.edu/ram-rajagopal" data-extlink="" target="_blank">Ram Rajagopal</a>, senior author of the study and associate professor of <a href="https://cee.stanford.edu/" data-extlink="" target="_blank">civil and environmental engineering</a> and of <a href="https://ee.stanford.edu/" data-extlink="" target="_blank">electrical engineering</a> at Stanford. “This new study shows that commercial and industrial properties have the capacity to host solar resources to fill in part of that gap.”<h2>Untapped resources</h2>First, the bad news. The researchers found that non-residential rooftops generate 38% less electricity in disadvantaged communities than in wealthier ones. That gap, which is mainly because of lower deployment in poorer areas, has widened over the past two decades. Nevertheless, this gap is significantly lower than that of residential solar in these neighborhoods.The good news, the researchers say, is that non-residential buildings have large unused capacity to produce solar power for their own benefit and to supply the communities around them. In low-income communities, commercial enterprises may be more responsive to government incentives for solar power than households are. <a href="https://engineering.stanford.edu/magazine/solar-panels-are-largely-confined-wealthy-americans" target="_blank">An earlier study</a> by the same researchers found that residential customers in disadvantaged communities, who may have fewer financial resources and often don’t own their homes, show less response to tax breaks and other financial inducements.“Using Stanford’s <a href="https://deepsolar.web.app/" data-extlink="" target="_blank">DeepSolar</a> database, we estimated that solar arrays on non-residential buildings could meet more than a fifth of annual residential electricity demand in almost two-thirds of disadvantaged communities,” said <a href="https://de.linkedin.com/in/moritz-wussow-35082453?original_referer=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2F" data-extlink="" target="_blank">Moritz Wussow</a>, the study’s lead author.“Also, the raw cost of that power would be less in many communities than the residential rates that local electric utilities charge,” said Wussow, who was a visiting student researcher in Rajagopal’s lab group in 2022 and 2023.To quantify the distribution of non-residential solar power installations, the researchers used satellite images and artificial intelligence to identify the number and size of rooftop solar arrays in 72,739 census tracts across the United States. About one-third of those tracts are deemed disadvantaged by the U.S. government.The team tracked non-residential solar deployment as well as the amount of unused rooftops that would be good candidates for solar installation from 2006 through 2016 and then again for 2022. They then calculated the average annual cost of producing solar electricity in each area, based on the amount of local sun exposure and other variables. The costs ranged from about 6.4 cents per kilowatt-hour in sun-drenched New Mexico to almost 11 cents in Alaska. But those costs were lower than residential electricity rates in many of those areas – even in many northern states.<a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/chad-zanocco-582a031a" data-extlink="" target="_blank">Chad Zanocco</a>, a co-author of the new study and a postdoctoral fellow in civil and environmental engineering, noted that getting the power to residential areas would include other costs, such as battery storage and the construction of microgrids.“We estimate that battery storage would increase total system costs by about 50%, but even that would be practical in almost two-thirds of the disadvantaged communities we studied,” Zanocco said.<h2>Economies of scale</h2>If commercial and industrial solar arrays can feed their surplus electricity into local power grids, the researchers write, lower-income residents could gain access through community subscriptions rather than by building their own rooftop panels. Commercial and industrial sites also offer greater economies of scale, compared to individual household solar panels. Another big advantage is that non-residential power customers could also be highly sensitive to tax incentives and other government inducements, leading to greater adoption.Further lowering barriers, the researchers noted, is the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022 which has provided billions of dollars for states and local communities for clean-energy infrastructure. That money has already reduced the cost of new microgrids.“Beyond reducing carbon emissions and slowing climate change, increased access to solar power would offer tangible local benefits to lower-income communities,” said <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/zhecheng-wang-96287b132/" data-extlink="" target="_blank">Zhecheng Wang</a>, a co-author and a postdoctoral fellow at Stanford’s Institute for Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence.“This would promote local clean and low-cost energy generation, which would also increase the resilience from outages and reduce the pollution caused by fossil fuel power plants – many of which are located in low-income areas.”Additional Stanford co-authors on the paper are:&nbsp;<a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/rajanieprabha" data-extlink="" target="_blank">Rajanie Prabha</a>, a PhD student in Civil &amp; Environmental Engineering;&nbsp;<a href="https://profiles.stanford.edu/june-flora" data-extlink="" target="_blank">June Flora</a>, a senior research scholar in Civil &amp; Environmental Engineering, and in Stanford’s School of Medicine; and&nbsp;<a href="https://profiles.stanford.edu/arun-majumdar" data-extlink="" target="_blank">Arun Majumdar</a>, dean of Stanford Doerr School of Sustainability, professor in the departments of Energy Science &amp; Engineering, of Mechanical Engineering, and of Photon Science at SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, and senior fellow at the Precourt Institute and Stanford Woods Institute for the Environment. Civil &amp; Environmental Engineering is a joint department of the&nbsp;<a href="https://engineering.stanford.edu/" target="_blank">Stanford School of Engineering</a>&nbsp;and the Stanford Doerr School of Sustainability.&nbsp;<a href="https://www.is.uni-freiburg.de/mitarbeiter-en/team/dirk-neumann" data-extlink="" target="_blank">Dirk Neumann</a>, a professor of information systems research at Albert-Ludwigs-Universität in Freiburg, Germany, is also a co-author. Ram Rajagopal is also co-director of the Bits &amp; Watts Initiative at the&nbsp;<a href="http://energy.stanford.edu/" data-extlink="" target="_blank">Precourt Institute for Energy</a>, which is part of the&nbsp;<a href="https://sustainability.stanford.edu/" data-extlink="" target="_blank">Stanford Doerr School of Sustainability</a>.

What measures can be taken to reduce the "solar equity gap"? | Image courtesy of Hans Wilschut

A new study finds that factory and warehouse rooftops offer a big untapped opportunity to help disadvantaged communities bridge the solar energy divide.

Stanford-led research shows how commercial rooftop solar power could bring affordable clean energy to low-income homes

As electric vehicle (EV) battery manufacturing expands, so too does the demand for the materials that are essential to their production. Today’s EVs employ several battery technologies with different combinations of materials. Around the world, governments are developing policies to ensure that these materials are readily available and to mitigate supply chain disruption risks.In a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-46418-1.epdf?sharing_token=4_W4TX-XN5hf4pPgys28ENRgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0PnOf5EcsU7quxpqwJX9Xvx1Kknep4kdCq_oWx29xEFTtXCjwgDK1nPtYAm1mMCWM14HjSs6N-aU6tNprpaHHnVJjkVY3-GfWzbWhoDa3vv-COI28ukJIlSa6QTFEIpTSQ%3D" rel="noopener" target="_blank">recent publication in Nature Communications</a>, a team of researchers from the Department of Engineering and Public Policy at Carnegie Mellon University provides analysis of the relationship between electric vehicle battery chemistry and supply chain vulnerability for four critical minerals—lithium, cobalt, nickel, and manganese—across particular countries that are key contributors to production. The primary lithium ion battery chemistries used in EVs today are lithium iron phosphate (LFP), nickel manganese cobalt (NMC), and nickel cobalt aluminum (NCA), which each depend on varying amounts of these minerals. The authors, Anthony Cheng, <a href="https://engineering.cmu.edu/directory/bios/fuchs-erica.html" target="_blank">Erica Fuchs</a>, <a href="https://engineering.cmu.edu/directory/bios/karplus-valerie.html" target="_blank">Valerie Karplus</a>, and <a href="https://engineering.cmu.edu/directory/bios/michalek-jeremy.html" target="_blank">Jeremy Michalek</a>, find that effectively reducing vulnerabilities to disruption related to any particular country may require addressing multiple layers of upstream supply relationships.<blockquote>We need to anticipate new potential supply chain vulnerabilities so that we can act strategically to mitigate risk.<cite>Jeremy Michalek, Professor, Mechanical Engineering and Engineering and Public Policy</cite></blockquote>“In the 1970s, several global oil supply disruptions sent shock waves through the economy, with motorists waiting in long lines to fill up,” says Michalek, a professor of engineering and public policy and mechanical engineering and who also serves as director of <a href="https://www.cmu.edu/cit/veg/" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Carnegie Mellon’s Vehicle Electrification Group</a>. “As we shift away from gasoline toward electric vehicles, we need to anticipate new potential supply chain vulnerabilities so that we can act strategically to mitigate risk.”By mapping the supply chains of the four critical materials, calculating a vulnerability index, and using a network flow optimization to bound uncertainties, the study finds that production at multiple supply chain steps is highly concentrated in single countries. In particular, production at multiple stages of the supply chain across battery technologies occurs in China, primarily due to its role in materials refining and cathode production.“Our approach provides a new measure of energy security as we move beyond fossil fuels,” says Karplus, a professor of engineering and public policy and associate director of the <a href="https://www.cmu.edu/energy/" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Wilton E. Scott Institute for Energy Innovation</a>.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1712184833930-0319-em-ev-supply-chain.png" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">A Sankey diagram for global flows of lithium that available data suggest are involved in battery material supply chains.&nbsp;Source:&nbsp;Nature CommunicationsA supply chain disruption centered in one country could occur for any number of reasons, ranging from geopolitical strategy to political or economic instability, a natural disaster, or another pandemic. Last year, China restricted exports of graphite, another key material used in batteries. Countries that make EVs, like the U.S., have an interest in diversifying supply chains to reduce disruption risks such as this.Additionally, the research finds that the levels of vulnerability vary based on the lithium-ion battery chemistry. For example, the LFP chemistry may currently be more vulnerable to supply disruptions in China, but NMC chemistries depend on more critical materials, resulting in more pathways for disruptions from other countries to affect the supply chain, such as the Democratic Republic of Congo or South Africa.As efforts are made to diversify the supply chain and incentivize domestic production, the authors note that a comprehensive approach must be considered beyond battery cell and pack production, including minerals extraction, processing, and component production.“The U.S. Inflation Reduction Act provides major incentives to diversify the supply chain and build more batteries in the U.S.,” says Michalek. “We’re actively working to analyze how this policy may incentivize changes in different parts of the supply chain and in battery technology.”The findings in this research can be useful to policymakers as they seek to identify specific bottlenecks, key relationships, and potential levers for reduction of supply chain vulnerabilities.

A recent study analyzes the relationship between electric vehicle battery chemistry and supply chain vulnerability for four critical minerals—lithium, cobalt, nickel, and manganese—across particular countries that are key contributors to production.

Anticipating and reducing EV battery supply disruptions

Powerful, safe and environmentally friendly – sodium-ion batteries have many advantages over conventional batteries. Since they do not contain critical raw materials such as lithium or cobalt, they could also make applications such as stationary energy storage and electromobility much cheaper. However, there is currently a lack of the necessary energy storage materials for production. The start-up Litona, founded at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), wants to produce them on an industrial scale. From April 22nd to 26th, 2024, Litona will be presenting itself at the KIT stand at “Energy Solutions” (Hall 13, Stand C76) at the Hannover Messe.&nbsp;Prussian White, a “chemical relative” of the well-known dye Prussian Blue, is essentially based on sodium, iron and manganese. “As an energy storage material, it can be used on the cathode, i.e. the positive pole of a sodium-ion battery,” says Sebastian Büchele from the Institute for Applied Materials at KIT and founder of Litona. “Such batteries are cheap and all the raw materials they contain are widely available. I am convinced that we will soon be able to use them on a mass scale in electric vehicles and grid storage.” The question, however, is who produces them. The European industry is facing a major problem here. “It is currently difficult even for research institutions to obtain Prussian White in sufficient quantities. Hardly any company in Europe produces it,” reports the scientist. “Research and transfer of future-oriented sodium-ion technology will be extremely slowed down.”<h2 id="isPasted">Prussian White for mass production</h2>Since Büchele also wanted to research sodium ion technology, he decided to synthesize Prussian white himself. This work at KIT not only resulted in a high-quality cathode material, but also an innovative process for its production. With the aim of serving a larger market, he founded the start-up Litona together with the chemist Tom Bötticher. “Competitors had problems scaling the production of Prussian White analogues,” says Büchele. “We believe we have solved this. We have also developed methods to further enhance our material.”<h2>Opportunity for European industry</h2>To validate the scaling steps and optimize the material for use in next-generation batteries, Litona used KIT's infrastructure. In the meantime, the two founders are already working on setting up their own state-of-the-art production facility. “We consciously chose Germany as a location,” emphasizes co-founder Bötticher. “We believe in the potential of European battery production. When it comes to lithium-ion batteries, Asia has been ahead in recent years. Sodium-ion technology is now a huge opportunity for a new beginning in Europe. We don’t just want to watch.”<h2>Litona at the Hannover Messe 2024</h2>The start-up Litona will be presenting itself at this year's Hannover Messe from April 22nd to 26th at the KIT stand at “Energy Solutions” (Hall 13, Stand C76).<hr><h2>About Litona</h2>Litona was founded in August 2023 with the aim of supplying the European industry with sodium-ion energy storage materials. However, the young company does not want to rule out developing its own sodium-ion batteries in the future. The founders are currently in discussions with well-known investors from the deep tech scene.&nbsp;Further information:&nbsp;<a href="https://www.litona-batteries.de/" target="_blank">https://www.litona-batteries.de/</a>

Litona founder Sebastian Büchele shows a bottle of the energy storage material Preußisch Weiß for sodium-ion batteries. (Photo: Markus Breig, KIT)

Litona, a spin-off from KIT, produces the cathode material Prussian White for next-generation batteries

Battery material for the sodium-ion revolution

In this episode, we discuss a breakthrough from an EPFL researcher which promises to finally make hydrogen a feasible source of energy by extracting it efficiently from ammonia. 

Podcast: How Hydrogen Will Replace Batteries

Several technologies have suddenly come into the spotlight in measures against global warming. Typical examples of these technologies include solar and wind power generation, electric vehicles (EVs), power semiconductors, and fuel cells. Among these technologies, batteries have been viewed as important and widely used for some time. However, batteries are an electrical component whose importance has risen to another level in recent years (Fig. 1).<h2>Larger-Capacity, Higher-Voltage, and Longer-Life Batteries Are Sought for EVs and Energy Storage Systems (ESSs)</h2>Batteries, long used in toys, flashlights and other devices, are now an indispensable source of power for notebooks, smartphones, and other mobile devices. However, devices and equipment that were previously used by burning fossil fuels are now being electrified. Moreover, the use of renewable energy is being promoted. Against this backdrop, new usage scenarios for batteries are rapidly expanding. A strong desire has now emerged for batteries with greater performance, reliability, and safety than ever before.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1711015890630-bms-img0001.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Fig. 1: Batteries Are Becoming Increasingly Important as a Technology That Boosts the Achievement of Carbon NeutralityFor example, extremely advanced batteries are sought when electrifying the means of mobility that have conventionally used powerful engines as sources of power and heat such as EVs, electric ships, and airplanes. Those batteries need to meet all advanced requirements including a larger capacity to lengthen the continuous use time, higher input/output to enable rapid charging/discharging from small to large power, a longer cycle life with no deterioration over a long time even when repeatedly charged/discharged, and improved safety to allow use even under various temperatures, vibrations, shocks, and other environmental conditions.However, even with the batteries used in new scenarios like such EVs, the basic structure and materials used are not that different from conventional batteries used in smartphones. Lithium ion secondary batteries, the most user-friendly batteries from various perspectives including capacity, output, and life span, are being used without major improvements.The operating voltage of each lithium ion secondary battery cell (the smallest element of a battery) is approximately 4 V when fully charged and approximately 2 V when discharged. The operating voltage is also similar in batteries for smartphones. Moreover, the capacity realized by one cell is approximately 26 Ah for those installed in the latest EVs. The capacity of batteries for smartphones is approximately 3 Ah. Certainly, that means they are a little large. Nevertheless, we can still say they are small considering that they are used to power heavy machines like EVs.&nbsp;In fact, EV motors are driven at a high-voltage power of 400 V to 800 V. The capacity of the batteries that must be installed in EVs to obtain a practical traveling range is large at 50 kWh or more. Combining 1,000 or more cells and then arranging them in a series or parallel realizes the specifications of batteries for EVs. Batteries that have been given a higher voltage and larger capacity by combining a certain number of cells are called modules. Furthermore, a collection of multiple modules is referred to as a pack.It is necessary to resolve certain issues to adopt this method of combining small cells to make large batteries.In general, there are individual differences in the capacity, input/output, and other characteristics of each cell. Those differences arise from variations in materials and manufacturing. When cells are charged/discharged repeatedly, individual differences also arise in their strength against stress from the environment such as charging/discharging. Therefore, the individual differences of each cell tend to become larger. These individual differences have a major impact on the life span, output, and other characteristics of modules comprising many cells and the pack overall. That is because the characteristics of the module or pack will conform to the characteristics of the cell with the weakest performance and stress resistance among those used. Generally, there are fluctuations (referred to as "stress strength") in the temperature of the environment surrounding each cell and the voltage and current during charging/discharging. Therefore, the less resistant the cell, the higher the degree of deterioration. In particular, if the capacity is reduced, the power fails, or another problem arises due to over-charging (over-discharging), overheating, and internal short circuits, it may become impossible to control or drive the vehicle. That may even lead to an accident.<h2>What Is a Battery Management System – a Key System to Effectively Use Batteries?</h2>Against this background, it is necessary to set up an operating environment where it is possible to minimize the deterioration of each cell to maintain the performance of the modules comprising a combination of multiple cells and the packs and ensure the safe use of them over a longer period. A Battery Management System (BMS) is the control system that plays the role of closely monitoring and controlling the operation and status of each cell to achieve that purpose.The operation and status of each cell is constantly monitored with high precision and high resolution in a BMS. Sensors that detect the voltage, current, temperature, leakage, and other factors are used to monitor the operation and status of cells. The system controls the charging/discharging to compensate for slight inconsistences and imbalances in individual cells or modules. This maintains the balance so that the characteristics are as uniform as possible. As a result, the operating life span and performance of the modules and packs are maximized while ensuring their safety (Fig. 2).<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1711015915237-bms-img0002_en.png" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Fig. 2: Cell Balancing - the Main Function of a BMSThe software control in the microcomputer then checks the collected data against the usage range determined from the battery specifications and design to perform operations like the following: (1) charging/discharging control to prevent over-charging and over-discharging, which impairs safety by causing cells to deteriorate, (2) charging/discharging control to prevent dangerous over-current, (3) management of the temperature to enable safe and smooth operation, (4) calculation of the state of charge (SOC), and (5) equalization of the cell voltage to maximize the traveling range and life span (referred to as "cell balancing"). Furthermore, if over-charging, overheating, or another abnormality is detected, the BMS sends alerts to the other in-vehicle systems and informs the control circuits that have the function to disconnect the output power to prevent accidents from occurring.There are two methods to the cell balancing function, which is an important function of a BMS. One is the passive method, in which a discharge switch is used to forcibly discharge cells with a high voltage and to convert the difference in capacity with cells with a low voltage into heat to equivalize the voltage. The other is the active method. In the active method, current is exchanged between adjacent cells with an unbalanced capacity and voltage to equalize the charging status of the cells. It is necessary to employ the active method to fully utilize the battery's potential without spare.The performance of a BMS is determined by the diversity and precision of its embedded control functions. However, an important condition to realize this is a high level of precision in the sensors that detect the operation and status of the cells and in the many electronic components used in BMS circuits (Fig. 3). In addition, a large number of cells must be monitored. Therefore, the BMS circuit configuration itself is becoming more complex. This means smaller and lighter sensors and components are being sought.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1711015936852-bms-img0003.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Fig. 3: Components Used in BMS Circuits (Source: Application guides "BMS (Battery management system)")<h2 id="isPasted">Wireless BMSs: Installed with Many Wireless Modules</h2>Conventional BMSs predict the operation and status of each cell by checking the data collected with the sensors against the rules and control range input in advance. Consideration is now being given to introducing technology that predicts the operation and status of each cell with even greater precision by allowing artificial intelligence (AI) to learn the trends in electrochemical phenomena in batteries. It is expected that utilization of this technology called "AI BMS" will enable the prediction of cell performance during rapid charging and the early detection of cell deterioration.&nbsp;In addition, attention has been focusing in recent years on the introduction of wireless BMSs (wBMSs). This is a wireless version of the control line that connects the modules and the BMS, making it possible to reduce the number of cables between the modules. This reduces the weight and makes it easier to wire to difficult-to-access locations. It seems it is possible to reduce the length of the cables by approximately 10 m per vehicle as well as the number of connectors, transformers, and other components associated with the wire connections when this technology is applied to a BMS for EVs. Furthermore, installing cells in that empty space will also make it possible to increase the battery capacity. Nevertheless, the risk of failure increases due to instability in the signal transmission line environment compared to a wired connection.A movement is already emerging to apply wBMSs to EVs and large energy storage systems (ESSs). It is essential to apply highly reliable and low-latency wireless technology to realize wBMSs. Semiconductor manufacturers that develop wireless ICs often propose the use of wireless technology with their own standards. Nevertheless, many of them use 2.4 GHz ISM band radio. It is likely that many small and highly reliable wireless modules will be used in EV and ESS batteries. The applications to which wBMSs can be applied will continue to expand in the future as wireless modules evolve.<hr id="isPasted"><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1711016070057-1711016070057.png" class="fr-fic fr-dii">If you have any questions based on this article that you would like to discuss with an expert at Murata, don't hesitate to reach out. There's an entire team ready to support you with your question.<a href="https://www.murata.com/en-eu/contactform?&Detail=Wevolver%20request" target="_blank" rel="nofollow" class="button-main-action">GET IN TOUCH</a>

Several technologies have suddenly come into the spotlight in measures against global warming. Typical examples of these technologies include solar and wind power generation, electric vehicles (EVs), power semiconductors, and fuel cells. 

Optimizing Battery Performance: Advanced Management Systems for Enhanced Safety, Efficiency, and Utilization

Battery Type: Electrochemistry, Capacity, and Energy DensityConsider the application and device form factor when choosing the battery. Coin cell batteries are compact and suitable for low-power devices with minimal energy needs but have limited capacity and are non-rechargeable. Lithium-ion (Li-ion) or lithium-polymer (Li-poly) batteries offer higher capacity, rechargability, and longer lifespans, making them suitable for devices with higher power demands and longer lifecycles. Customized batteries may be necessary for devices with unconventional form factors.Capacity, measured in mAh or Wh, refers to the amount of charge a battery can store, while energy density relates to the amount of energy stored per unit volume or weight. Selecting a battery with sufficient capacity and energy density ensures extended device operation without frequent battery replacements.Voltage and Discharge CharacteristicsEnsure the battery voltage aligns with the device's voltage requirements over its entire lifespan. Understand the discharge rate influenced by the application's use, such as data transmission frequency, intensity, and duration. These factors impact battery characteristics, including discharge rate and voltage drop over time, ultimately affecting power consumption and runtime.TemperatureTemperature significantly affects battery performance. Extreme temperatures can impact capacity, discharge rate, and lifespan. Select a battery with an operating temperature range suitable for the device's environmental conditions.Battery and Device Shelf LifeConsider battery conditions, such as self-discharge, both before integration into the IoT device and once integrated. Aging and self-discharge affect performance, so understanding these parameters during product development and post-market deployment is crucial.Cost and LifespanEvaluate upfront cost and total cost of ownership over the battery's lifespan. Assess the battery's expected lifespan and balance it with the device's operational duration to optimize cost-effectiveness.By considering these factors, developers can choose the right battery for their IoT devices, ensuring optimal performance, longevity, and cost-effectiveness. Relying solely on data sheets is not sufficient. Further tests need to be done due to the device-specific conditions and batteries. This will be adressed in the following blogpost. If you can’t wait, download the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.qoitech.com/whitepaper/powering-iot-devices/" target="_blank">white paper</a>.

Choosing the appropriate battery for IoT devices is critical to ensure optimal performance and longevity. There are several factors to consider when selecting a battery that aligns with the specific requirements of the application, allowing for reliable and long-lasting power supply.

Choosing the Right IoT Battery

With the U.S. government’s goal to reduce emissions from transportation as part of a net-zero climate goal by 2050, efficient and reliable batteries are a necessity. A collaborative team of researchers led by the McKelvey School of Engineering at Washington University in St. Louis is working toward that goal by developing an energy storage system that would have a much higher energy density than existing systems.With $1.5 million from the U.S. Department of Energy’s Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy (ARPA-E), Xianglin Li, associate professor of mechanical engineering &amp; materials science, will lead a multi-institutional team to develop a lithium-air (Li-air) battery with ionic liquids to deliver efficient, reliable and durable performance for high-energy and high-power applications. The Phase I, 18-month funding is part of $15 million ARPA-E awarded to 12 projects across 11 states to advance next-generation, high-energy storage solutions to speed electrifying the aviation, railroad and maritime transportation sectors.Funded through the Pioneering Railroad, Oceanic and Plane ELectrification with 1K energy storage systems (<a href="https://arpa-e.energy.gov/technologies/programs/propel-1k" target="_blank">PROPEL-1K</a>) program, projects aim to develop emission-free energy storage systems with “1K” technologies capable of achieving or exceeding 1,000-Watt-hour per kilogram (Wh/kg) and 1,000 Watt-hour per liter (Wh/L).“The current commercially available lithium-ion batteries have the specific energy of around 200 watt-hour per kilogram, and those would not work because 1,000 watt-hour per kilogram is beyond their thermodynamic limit,” Li said. “We need to increase that specific energy density by four to five times, so this is a very aggressive goal.”If successful, PROPEL-1K technologies would electrify regional flights traveling as far as 1,000 miles with up to 100 people, all North American railroads, and all vessels operating exclusively in U.S. territorial waters, the agency said.&nbsp;Li’s team’s concept would use pure lithium in the anode because it has the highest energy density. They will use a very thin separator with unique properties to transfer the lithium ion back and forth. The cathode must contain catalysts that make the electrochemical reaction of oxygen reduction and evolution reactions happen quickly and efficiently.“All of these components must be put together almost perfectly, because that 1,000 watt-hour per kilogram is near the limit of any energy storage technology,” Li said. “That's why we have a large team with complementary experts on different parts of this whole system. My team will lead the overall design of the system and focus on the cathode where the oxygen reaction would occur.”For the proposed Li-air flow battery, the team will use a unique electrolyte: ionic liquids with high oxygen solubility, low viscosity, ultra-low volatility and high ionic conductivity. The team will also customize catalysts and lithium metal protection membranes to enhance battery performance while reducing power consumption during electrolyte circulation. Preliminary experimental results have shown a tenfold increase in capacity by using a circulating electrolyte.“Commercial batteries use organic electrolytes, but because our Li-air cell is an open system, that electrolyte would evaporate over time,” Li said. “Ionic liquid is a salt that acts like a liquid but does not evaporate and can flow at room temperature.”Co-principal investigators on the project include Peng Bai, associate professor, and Vijay Ramani, the Roma B. &amp; Raymond H. Wittcoff Distinguished University Professor, both in the Department of Energy, Environmental &amp; Chemical Engineering in McKelvey Engineering; Mark Shiflett, Foundation Distinguished Professor at the University of Kansas; Ivan Vlassiouk, senior research staff at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory; James Saraidaridis, principal research engineer at Raytheon Technologies Research Center; and Sherry Quinn, electrochemist at Powerit. Together, they will work to develop a prototype that may be further developed and taken to market.The team also will conduct an economic analysis of its Li-air flow battery systems to the aviation, railroad and maritime transportation sectors to highlight the importance of advancing energy storage technologies beyond the current Li-ion battery technology.

With $1.5 million from the U.S. Department of Energy’s Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy (ARPA-E), Xianglin Li, associate professor of mechanical engineering & materials science, will lead a multi-institutional team to develop a lithium-air (Li-Air) battery with ionic liquids to deliver efficient, reliable and durable performance for high-energy and high-power applications. (Credit: iStock photo)

With the U.S. government’s goal to reduce emissions from transportation as part of a net-zero climate goal by 2050, efficient and reliable batteries are a necessity.

Efficient lithium-air battery under development to speed electrification of vehicles

According to the Global EV Outlook from IEA, the EV stock reaches 145 million in 2030, accounting for 7% of the road vehicle fleet. However, one of the main challenges facing EVs is the battery, which determines the performance, range, safety, and cost of the vehicle. The battery enclosure is the protective structure that houses the battery cells and modules. The article explores different materials and design considerations for enclosures to optimize and supercharge EV performance. &nbsp;<h2 dir="ltr">Steel vs. Aluminium vs. Carbon Fiber</h2>Steel is a traditional material that offers high strength and durability. However, steel is heavy and prone to corrosion, which can reduce the energy efficiency and lifespan of the battery. In addition, steel has high thermal conductivity, which affects the battery performance and safety. Aluminum, in contrast, is preferred due to its lightweight and high strength-to-weight ratio. It is also more resistant to corrosion than steel.Sounds like aluminum wins in every way, no material is without its challenges, however. There is also the poor impact performance of metal materials. Carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP), a newer and more innovative composite material, offers lightweight, anti-impact, durable and flexible performance. However, it is also more expansive. Moreover,<a href="https://www.sae.org/news/2021/01/novel-materials-approach-to-ev-battery-box-design" target="_blank">&nbsp;its thermal expansion mismatch with the battery cells</a>, which makes it still a cautious choice.<h2 dir="ltr">Design to Improve Cooling Efficiency</h2>Other than material selection, the factors such as structure optimization, thermal management system, etc., are also crucial. The modular design with multiple cooling channels and the use of cooling fins and heat sinks can enhance the cooling efficiency of the battery pack. Therefore, the surface area for heat transfer increased, allowing air or liquid to flow through the channels. If the heat, generated by battery cells during operation, is not dissipated properly, can reduce the lifespan of the battery, and even cause safety hazards.<h2 dir="ltr">Multi-layered Housing Structure</h2>Another important aspect of the battery pack housing design is the protection against mechanical and thermal shocks. A multi-layered housing structure consisting of an outer layer of aluminum or steel, a middle layer of insulation material, and an inner layer of polymer film can balance the pros and cons of different materials.This structure protects against physical damage to the battery cells from external impacts or vibrations, and protects against thermal runaway, which can occur when the battery overheats and triggers a chain reaction leading to a fire or explosion. The insulation layer prevents heat from spreading to adjacent cells and absorbs impact energy, while the polymer film acts as a barrier to prevent oxygen from entering the battery and fueling the combustion.<h2 dir="ltr">On-demand Manufacturing Accelerates Your Enclosure Development</h2>Before launching battery packs to the market, you need to conduct many prototyping verifications. RPWORLD is happy to support alongside your auto part development with 20-years’ experience and expertise. Choose RPWORLD, you will get:<ul><li dir="ltr">Fast delivery in as little as 7 days to help you ahead of competitions.</li><li dir="ltr">One-stop manufacturing including CNC machining, injection molding and more to bring your design to life under one roof.</li><li dir="ltr">Design optimization and manufacturability advice to mitigate production risks.</li><li>00+ high-performance engineering materials to suite your different needs.</li></ul>

According to the Global EV Outlook from IEA, the EV stock reaches 145 million in 2030, accounting for 7% of the road vehicle fleet. However, one of the main challenges facing EVs is the battery, which determines the performance, range, safety, and cost of the vehicle.

Supercharge EV's Performance with Optimized Battery Enclosures

<h2 id="isPasted">How Nanotechnology Is Inspiring the Next Generation of Batteries</h2>Rechargeable batteries are an important part of many modern-day technologies. Researchers, manufacturers and end-user companies are always looking to improve the efficiencies of batteries, making them safer, smaller, and more lightweight to fit in the requirements of new technologies—that is, the consumer desire to have higher-powered, smaller, and more lightweight electronic devices. Conventional fabrication methods, electrochemistries, and materials will take batteries technologies only so far, so a lot of interest in recent years has been around using nanomaterials within the electrodes.Nothing is wrong with current battery technologies—as showcased by the 2019 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, which honored the scientists behind the Li-ion battery—but change is inevitable. Without an ever-changing electronics industry, technological advances made in the past few decades would not have been possible.While lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries are ubiquitous nowadays, their efficiencies aren’t overly impressive. They are much safer than other batteries while still having a good energy density, so there is room for improvement. Other types of batteries are gaining traction at both fundamental and commercial levels, but a drive to improve the already-established Li-ion batteries by incorporating nanomaterials into them has begun.<h2>Why Nanomaterials?</h2>The switch to trialing nanomaterials over bulkier materials is for many of the same reasons that other industries have made the switch (or have looked to make the switch). A number of properties can be harvested for a small amount of nanomaterials being included in a device (or within another material).Not all nanomaterials are suitable for batteries, as some nanomaterials are inherently insulating in nature. Rather, it is the conductive nanomaterials that are of use in battery systems, such as those of solid-state nature, or those which are incredibly thin (for example, some 2D materials). Luckily, the use of nanomaterials in electrodes is not a completely new invention. It is merely a natural progression to make systems more effective without altering the internal workings of the technology. While the inclusion of nanomaterials might slightly alter the specific mechanisms of how the ions move into the electrodes (because of different-sized/geometry atomic holes) via different architectures, the general operational mechanism of the batteries remains the same. This means that any safety or efficiency issues that arise can be pinpointed much easier than trying to develop a new type of battery from scratch. Sometimes, improving the status quo is better than trying to develop something completely novel.Many of the nanomaterials trialed have high electrical conductivity, and with this comes a high charge carrier mobility. These properties stem from nanomaterials having a very active surface–and a very high surface area–compared to bulkier materials. In some cases, the active surface is the whole nanomaterial (2D materials). Given that nanomaterials are inherently thin, they are a lot more flexible–even the inorganic materials–than bulk materials, meaning that they are more useful for the batteries used in flexible and wearable technologies (Figure 1).<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1709117096314-Flexible+Graphene+Image.webp" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Figure 1: The inherently thin nature of nanomaterials, as shown in this graphene sheet, means they are more flexible than bulk materials and thereby more suitable for batteries used in flexible and wearable technologies. (Source: BONNINSTUDIO/Shutterstock.com)Despite their small size, a lot of nanomaterials are very stable and are resistant to high temperatures, harsh chemicals, and high physical stresses. While this can’t be said for all nanomaterials, enough of them are stable and conductive enough for battery electrodes. One disadvantage of nanomaterials is their higher cost because of the more complex fabrication methods required to make them. However, because only a small amount is needed for the same (or better) properties than bulkier materials, the cost is a lot less than many people believe. The small addition of nanomaterials also means that less waste is often produced, and the batteries are more lightweight than when bulk materials are used.<h2>Graphene is the Front-Runner</h2>Of all the nanomaterials being trialed, graphene is the front-runner and is found in more prototypes than any other type of nanomaterial. A number of companies now commercially manufacture graphene batteries for different industrial sectors. Reportedly, some big cellphone manufacturers might use graphene batteries in some next-generation phones in the near future (graphene is already used in the cooling systems of some phones).Graphene exhibits some of the best recorded-values of almost all the properties that nanomaterials can exhibit, meaning that making compromises between the beneficial properties of different materials can often be negated by using graphene. Additionally, given that many batteries already use graphite—many graphene layers stacked on top of each other—it is a much more natural progression than other materials, and systems have been developed that use graphite-graphene electrodes.Graphene has one of the highest electrical conductivity and charge carrier mobilities known in the materials world. Moreover, it has an incredibly high tensile strength and flexibility (more than most nanomaterials and bulk materials), as well as being stable to high temperatures and harsh chemicals. The culmination of properties means that it can be used in a number of environments without its performance being affected, which is important when the batteries and the technologies they are in can get very hot internally, never mind the external heat they can be exposed to. Single-layer graphene is optically transparent, so it has the potential for being used to create transparent electrodes and transparent conductive films that could be used in batteries of the future that need to be invisible to the user.Aside from the properties being more suited to batteries than most other nanomaterials, the industry is in a much better place to cope with huge demands should it arrive. Because the properties and potential for graphene is well-understood, the industry has been preparing and growing in size around the world and graphene can now be produced at scale in a number of different forms. The raw material side is more scalable than other nanomaterials, making it a much more viable commercial option.<h2>Conclusion</h2>There is a drive in modern-day society for more efficient and smaller batteries, regardless of whether the application is consumer phones or remote monitoring equipment. Companies are starting to trial nanomaterials in battery systems because they bring about performance benefits and can make the batteries smaller, while not significantly increasing cost because only a small amount is required. A number of companies manufacture graphene batteries, but while graphene batteries are available for the industrial markets, it might take some time for the high-tech consumer markets (phones, tablets, etc.) to adopt graphene (or other nanomaterials) on a large-scale because the status quo is well-tested and any changes in these markets can take a long time to come to fruition.

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Different electronic devices that we use in everyday life, such as smartphones, LED lights, computers, and robots use different electronic circuits and processors for their operation. The utility supplies AC to different households and industries in order to transfer power efficiently over long distances. A stable DC power supply can be obtained using electronic circuits that can be internal or external in nature. Smartphones and laptops power external power supplies, while devices like computers, robots, and servers have power supplies integrated within them.&nbsp;Power supplies can be regulated or unregulated, wherein in regulated power supplies, changes in the input voltage profile do not affect the output of the power supply. On the other hand, in an unregulated power supply, the output depends on the input.&nbsp;To illustrate the general structure of a DC power supply we can consider it to consist of four basic blocks. Each block represents a particular function that is performed. The basic blocks are described below:<ul><li dir="ltr">Transformer: Since the input supply to the transformer is AC, the transformer converts high voltage AC into low voltage AC or converts a low voltage AC to high voltage AC. The transformer also acts as an isolator preventing high-frequency signals from going into the input side.</li><li dir="ltr">Rectification - This is the process of conversion of AC to DC. Switching converters are used to rectify the voltage. The output of the rectifier circuit is DC along with ripples. These ripples need to filter out before connecting them to the load.</li><li dir="ltr">Filter - The rippled DC output of the rectifier is filtered out using filter circuits. These filter circuits are generally capacitors connected in parallel with the load.</li><li dir="ltr">Voltage regulator - These devices are used to regulate the voltage with certain limits as desired by the load that is connected.</li></ul>DC power supplies are available in switch-mode (also known as switching) or linear configurations. While both types provide DC power, the method by which this power is generated differs. Each type of power supply has advantages over the other depending on the application. Let's take a look at the differences between these two technologies, as well as the benefits and drawbacks of each design.Recommended reading:&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/new.power.supply.unit.lets.electrical.devices.live.longer" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">New power supply unit lets electrical devices live longer</a><h2 dir="ltr" id="isPasted">What is a linear power supply?</h2>Linear power supplies, also known as series power supplies, are low-frequency power supplies that do not use any switching component in their conversion process. Due to the low frequency of operation, the transformers used are bulkier as compared to switching mode power supplies.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjU3ODA4MTA3OTEyLUFDX2N1cnJlbnRfc3VwcGx5LmpwZyIsImVkaXRzIjp7InJlc2l6ZSI6eyJ3aWR0aCI6OTUwLCJmaXQiOiJjb3ZlciJ9fX0=" style="width: 800px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib" alt="Linear Power Supply">Linear Power Supply<div style='pointer-events: none; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 2px; z-index: auto; position: absolute; left: 0px; top: 625.7px; height: 39px; width: 766px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; font-stretch: 100%; font-size: 14px; font-family: "PT Serif", serif; text-align: center; text-transform: none; letter-spacing: normal; word-spacing: 0px; tab-size: 8;'> </div> <h3 dir="ltr" id="isPasted">How does it work?</h3>In a linear power supply, an alternating current transformer with an iron core and coil is used first to reduce the voltage of the incoming alternating current (AC). The voltage is then rectified by a diode in a rectifier circuit and smoothed to a stable voltage by a capacitor in a smoothing circuit.The rectifier circuit produces a series of positive peaks of a sine wave, which is not a stable Direct current. As a result, the voltage is converted to a constant level via a smoothing circuit comprised of a capacitor, followed by a stabilizing circuit (control circuit). Control circuits are classified into two types– shunt and series. To maintain a constant output DC voltage, both methods monitor and control it.<h3 dir="ltr">Preferred Applications</h3>A linear power supply requires a dedicated AC power transformer depending upon the input/output voltage and power demand. Each device has a fixed power demand and hence each application requires a dedicated transformer.A linear power supply is resistant to noise and electromagnetic interference and also does not cause RF interference with other devices. They also have a faster response as compared to switching power supply. Hence, they are used in audio frequency, RF applications, and places where excellent regulation and low-ripple output are required. Some of the common applications are mentioned below.<ul><li dir="ltr">Low noise amplifiers</li><li dir="ltr">Signal processing</li><li dir="ltr">Data acquisition - including sensors, multiplexers, A/D converters, and sample &amp; hold circuits.</li><li dir="ltr">Automatic test equipment</li><li dir="ltr">Laboratory test equipment</li></ul><h3 dir="ltr">Advantages &amp; Disadvantages</h3>The benefits of linear mode power supplies include simplicity, reliability, low noise levels, and low cost. A linear power supply has simple construction and design making them less complex as compared to a switching power supply. The simple design makes it easier to operate and maintain. The relatively simpler construction also prevents chances of failure making them more reliable. Linear power supply is resistant to EM interference and does not cause RF interference to other devices, making them ideal for high-frequency operations.Along with the numerous advantages of linear power supply, there are some disadvantages. Because linear regulators are ideal for low-power applications, the disadvantages are understood when higher power is required. When compared to a switch-mode power supply, the disadvantages of a linear power supply include size, high heat loss, and lower efficiency levels. When used in a high-power application, linear power supply units require a large transformer and other large components to handle the power as the frequency of operation is low. Using larger components increases the overall size and weight of the power supply, which can make weight distribution within a given application difficult. It also makes the power supply bulky and less portable. High heat losses occur while regulating a high power demand by the load, this makes the process inefficient.Recommended reading:&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/flexibility-will-be-key-to-a-large-scale-rollout-of-solar-power" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Flexibility will be key to a large-scale rollout of solar power</a><h2 dir="ltr" id="isPasted">What is a switching power supply?</h2>A switching power supply is designed using a different technique, developed to address many of the issues associated with linear power supply design, such as transformer size and voltage regulation. The input voltage is not reduced by switching power supply designs; instead, it is rectified and filtered at the input. The voltage is then passed through a chopper, which transforms it into a high-frequency pulse train. Before reaching the output, the voltage is filtered and rectified once more. &nbsp;The transformation into a high-frequency pulse train helps reduce the size of components, making the device smaller and more compact in nature.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjU3ODA4MTgwNDc3LXZvbHRhZ2VfY3VycmVudF90ZXN0ZXIuanBnIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 800px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib" alt="Switching Power Supply">Switching Power Supply<div style='pointer-events: none; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 2px; z-index: auto; position: absolute; left: 0px; top: 562.238px; height: 39px; width: 766px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; font-stretch: 100%; font-size: 14px; font-family: "PT Serif", serif; text-align: center; text-transform: none; letter-spacing: normal; word-spacing: 0px; tab-size: 8;'> </div><h3>How does it work?</h3>In contrast to linear power supply, switching power supply includes rectification and smoothing before voltage regulation. Using a switching device for the previously rectified current, the low-frequency AC at the input is transformed into a high-frequency pulse wave. The rectified high-frequency current is treated as a pseudo alternating current (AC) which is fed into a high-frequency transformer reduction in voltage as per load requirements. The output is then filtered and the voltage is regulated generally using feedback from the output to the high-frequency transformer.<h3 dir="ltr">Preferred Applications</h3>Switching power supplies have a compact design and are more efficient as compared to linear power supplies making them suitable for applications that require higher efficiency and have to be compact in nature. They are widely used as a source of power for mobile phones, computers, servers, and even LED lights. Some devices have them integrated within their body while others have them externally placed. They have also been used in vehicles and security systems.<h3 dir="ltr">Advantages &amp; Disadvantages</h3>Unlike linear power supply, the switching <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/understanding-transistors-what-they-are-and-how-they-work" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">transistors</a> in switch mode supply continually switch between full-on and full-off states and spend very little time in the high dissipation state during transitions, which minimizes wasted energy. This reduces the heat generated by wastage of energy and hence increases efficiency. Another major advantage of switching power supply is the compact size because of the smaller transformer size. This makes the device portable and easy to install.On the other hand, the design and manufacturing of switching power supply are complex which makes debugging and maintenance difficult as compared to linear supply. This power supply also injects harmonics into the system which can adversely affect other connected devices. The effect of noise and electromagnetic interference is quite significant, thus EMI filters are required for them to operate efficiently.Recommended reading:&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/sustainable-power-generation-with-low-temperatures" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Sustainable power generation with low temperatures</a><h2 dir="ltr" id="isPasted">Linear vs switching power supply</h2>Linear and switching power supplies have their own advantages and disadvantages and are used in specific applications depending on various factors as discussed before in the article. The table below shows the differences between linear and switching power supplies.<table style="width: 100%;"><tbody><tr><td style="width: 33.3333%;">Parameters</td><td style="width: 33.3333%;">Linear Power Supply</td><td style="width: 33.3333%;">Switching Power Supply</td></tr><tr><td style="width: 33.3333%;">Definition</td><td style="width: 33.3333%;">It completes the stepping down of AC voltage first then it converts it into DC.</td><td style="width: 33.3333%;">It converts the input signal into DC first then it steps down the voltage up to the desired level.</td></tr><tr><td style="width: 33.3333%;">Voltage Regulation</td><td style="width: 33.3333%;">Voltage regulation is done by the voltage regulator.</td><td style="width: 33.3333%;">Voltage regulation is done by a feedback circuit.</td></tr><tr><td style="width: 33.3333%;">Efficiency</td><td style="width: 33.3333%;">Low efficiency</td><td style="width: 33.3333%;">High-efficiency</td></tr><tr><td style="width: 33.3333%;">Magnetic material used</td><td style="width: 33.3333%;">Stalloy or CRGO core is used</td><td style="width: 33.3333%;">Ferrite core is used</td></tr><tr><td style="width: 33.3333%;">Reliability</td><td style="width: 33.3333%;">More reliable in comparison to SMPS in specific applications.</td><td style="width: 33.3333%;">The reliability depends on the transistors used for switching.</td></tr><tr><td style="width: 33.3333%;">RF interference</td><td style="width: 33.3333%;">No RF interference</td><td style="width: 33.3333%;">RF shielding is required as switching produces more RF interference.</td></tr><tr><td style="width: 33.3333%;">Noise and Electromagnetic Interference</td><td style="width: 33.3333%;">They are immune to noise and electromagnetic interference.</td><td style="width: 33.3333%;">The effect of noise and electromagnetic interference is quite significant; thus EMI filters are required.</td></tr><tr><td style="width: 33.3333%;">Complexity</td><td style="width: 33.3333%;">Less complex</td><td style="width: 33.3333%;">More complex</td></tr><tr><td style="width: 33.3333%;">Applications</td><td style="width: 33.3333%;">Used in audio frequency and RF applications.</td><td style="width: 33.3333%;">Used in chargers of mobile phones, DC motors, etc.</td></tr></tbody></table><h2 dir="ltr" id="isPasted">Key Takeaways</h2><ul><li dir="ltr">There are two common power supply designs– Linear and Switching power supply used for a wide range of applications, including RF, computer, audio, smartphones, etc.</li><li dir="ltr">The linear power supply is designed for low noise and there is no high-frequency switching to be used where regulation and low ripple are required along with low electromagnetic emissions and transient response.</li><li dir="ltr">The switching power supply is designed for high efficiency and small size that converts electrical power efficiently. The power supply regulates the output voltage through the process of pulse width modulation with various available topologies, including buck, boost, forward converter, half-bridge rectifier, or flyback depending on the output power requirements.</li><li dir="ltr">In modern-day electronics and electrical appliances, switching power supply is preferred due to their low cost, compact design, and improved efficiency.</li></ul><h2 dir="ltr" id="isPasted">References</h2>[1] [Available online: <a href="https://electronicscoach.com/difference-between-linear-supply-and-switch-mode-power-supply.html" target="_blank">https://electronicscoach.com/difference-between-linear-supply-and-switch-mode-power-supply.html</a>; Accessed. July 13, 2022.[2] Available online: <a href="https://www.seacomp.com/resources/switching-power-supply-advantages-and-disadvantages" target="_blank">https://www.seacomp.com/resources/switching-power-supply-advantages-and-disadvantages</a>; Accessed. July 13, 2022.[3] Available online: <a href="https://www.matsusada.com/column/linear_switching_difference.html" target="_blank">https://www.matsusada.com/column/linear_switching_difference.html</a>; Accessed. July 13, 2022.[4] Available online: <a href="https://www.circuitspecialists.com/blog/power-supplies-switch-mode-vs-linear/" target="_blank">https://www.circuitspecialists.com/blog/power-supplies-switch-mode-vs-linear/</a>; Accessed. July 13, 2022.

DC power supplies are available in switch-mode (also known as switching) or linear configurations of which switching power supply is preferred in modern-day electronics due to their low cost, compact design, and improved efficiency.
