The 23rd edition of the Precision Fair, held at Brabanthallen in 's-Hertogenbosch, has once again positioned itself as the pinnacle event for the high and ultra-precision technology sectors. This year,&nbsp;375 exhibitors&nbsp;and experts from international companies, research institutions, and academia gathered to push the boundaries of precision engineering. The event was enriched with 50 inspirational sessions delivered by industry leaders and innovators, encompassing a diverse range of topics from mechatronic systems to micro processing and motion.The fair not only facilitated a networking arena for professionals but also hosted the prestigious DSPE awards, celebrating significant achievements in the field. Additionally, this year marked the introduction of the International Precision Conference, further highlighting the event’s dedication to fostering global collaboration in pursuing technological advancements.By bringing together the best of industry and academia, the Precision Fair continues to be a critical hub for sharing knowledge and shaping the future of precision technology.Wevolver attended the fair and spoke with a few of the innovative exhibitors.&nbsp;<h2 dir="ltr">Hexagon: Enhancing Engineering Processes&nbsp;</h2>At the Precision Fair, Hexagon showcased its comprehensive approach to streamlining product development and manufacturing processes with advanced hardware and software solutions. Faruk Pehlivan, representing Hexagon, extended an invitation to their upcoming event,<a href="https://events.hexagon.com/Hexagon_LIVE_Eindhoven">&nbsp;Hexagon LIVE Eindhoven</a>, highlighting their commitment to technological innovation.Hexagon's solutions facilitate various stages of product development, from CFD analysis to optimise design functionality to G-code preparation for precise manufacturing execution. The standout at the event was their new MarvellScan, an optical scanning device designed for detailed quality checks and reverse engineering. This scanner is distinguished by its autonomous control, flexible movement capabilities, and wireless functionality, making it ideal for ensuring product quality directly against CAD models and enhancing legacy parts through reverse engineering.These innovations underscore Hexagon's leadership in integrating technology that enhances production efficiency and product reliability, setting a high standard for quality assurance in manufacturing.<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/harnessing-manufacturing-intelligence-to-enhance-operational-excellence-in-aerospace">Read more about Hexagon here.&nbsp;</a><h2 dir="ltr">Muon Group: Creating microstructures in glass</h2>Muon Group, through its member LouwersHanique, showcased its cutting-edge technology for creating microstructures in glass at the Precision Fair. Their process involves a two-step method using femtosecond laser technology. Initially, the glass is precisely modified by the laser, which changes its internal structure. This modification is followed by wet chemical etching, selectively removing the altered glass to create intricate 3D microstructures.This technique achieves remarkable precision, allowing for features as small as 1 µm, with tolerances and surface smoothness ideal for specialised industrial applications. Muon Group’s process supports various glass materials like fused silica, sapphire, and borosilicate, catering to a wide range of industries requiring high-precision glass components. Their full suite of capabilities includes not only microfabrication but also complementary services such as optical assembly, CNC milling, and cleanroom packaging, underscoring their comprehensive approach to high-tech glass manufacturing.<h2 dir="ltr">Versatile, agile and efficient: Maxon's SCARA Robotics Innovations at the Precision Fair</h2>Maxon showcased its innovative solutions for SCARA robots at the Precision Fair, featuring a holistic approach that optimises robotic motion and design for enhanced efficiency. Representatives Francis De Wilde and Mark van Zutphen introduced a full setup including a driver and a hollow-axis motor which allows for efficient cable management and increased space-saving on production lines. Their specialised programming facilitates dynamic flipping motions between work areas, improving pick-and-place operations. Maxon's focus on compact design and powerful performance optimises the use of space and resources in industrial settings, with future goals aimed at increasing the versatility and speed of robotic arms.&nbsp;<h2 dir="ltr">New era in precise inspection launched by ZEISS</h2>ZEISS launched the O-INSPECT Duo at the Precision Fair, introducing a large-scale measuring machine capable of inspecting items like circuit boards and batteries with optical, tactile, and microscopic methods. This innovation addresses the challenges of measuring large objects without cutting them, offering rapid and precise analysis. The system utilises ZEISS's established metrology and analysis software, and was showcased with demonstrations at the event, underscoring its potential to streamline quality control processes in manufacturing.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1731678709332-ZEISS-lanceert-nieuwe-O-INSPECT.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"><h2 dir="ltr">Innovative Duo Wins Prestigious Wim van der Hoek Award at Precision Fair</h2>The Wim van der Hoek Award, also known as the Constructors Award, was presented during the 22nd Precision Fair. For the first time, the award was given to a duo, Marc Slob and Youp Verbakel, for their innovative design of a machine for automatic assembly of shovels and spades. Their project, which originated from Avans University of Applied Sciences, excelled in terms of design freedom, cost considerations, and production reliability, earning them this prestigious accolade in mechanical engineering design.For more details, you can visit the<a href="https://www.dspe.nl/awards/wim-van-der-hoek-award/">&nbsp;DSPE website</a>.<h2 dir="ltr" id="isPasted">Liquid hydrogen-powered retrofit aircraft wins Young Talent Award</h2>On the inaugural day of the fair, student teams from the nation's top three technical universities competed in the Young Talent Pitch Award, presenting their innovative projects to a panel. The entries included diverse technologies ranging from autonomous racing cars and electric motors to hydrogen-fueled aircraft, a rover designed for the South Pole, and an actual rocket. The competition, which judged entries based on their technical feasibility, social impact, and creativity, concluded with Team Aero Delft claiming the top spot, followed by DARE - Stratos V from Delft in second place.Aero Delft is pioneering a transformative approach in aviation with its development of a liquid hydrogen-powered retrofit aircraft. The team is committed to advancing hydrogen propulsion technologies, planning a shift from gaseous to liquid hydrogen to drastically reduce aviation emissions. The jury lauded Aero Delft for their project's technical feasibility and innovative approach, highlighting it as a significant stride towards sustainable aviation. Koen Pijnacker's compelling pitch further solidified their standout status in the competition.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1731678583425-54141210051_2ddebb5594_c.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"><h2 dir="ltr" id="isPasted">Looking Ahead to 2025 and beyond</h2>The fair not only provided a platform for these technological showcases but also set the stage for future collaborations and innovations. Each presentation underscored the industry's focus on enhancing precision and efficiency, driving the boundaries of what's possible in technology and manufacturing.The next edition will take place on 12th&nbsp;and 13th&nbsp;November 2025.&nbsp;For more details on the event and future plans, visit<a href="https://mikrocentrum.nl/en/precision-technology/overview-precision-fair/">&nbsp;Mikrocentrum's Precision Fair</a>.

The 23rd Precision Fair showcased innovations like Hexagon's MarvellScan and Maxon's SCARA robots, with Aero Delft winning the Young Talent Pitch for their hydrogen aircraft.


Precision in Practice: Highlights from the 23rd Precision Fair

Microcells and Distributed Antenna Systems (DAS) are critical components of modern wireless networks, addressing coverage and capacity challenges in dense urban, indoor, and complex environments. Traditionally reliant on macrocell infrastructure, wireless service providers have increasingly turned to these technologies to meet surging user demands. The proliferation of smartphones, IoT devices, and data-intensive applications, coupled with the advent of 5G, is driving substantial investment in DAS equipment, anticipated <a href="https://go.abiresearch.com/lp-innovations-in-the-5g-distributed-antenna-systems-market" target="_blank">to reach $16 billion by 2027.</a>End-users demand ubiquitous, high-quality wireless connectivity, unhindered by environmental factors such as building structures or adverse weather conditions. The increasing prevalence of data-intensive applications, including 4K/8K streaming, heightens the need for robust network capacity. To address these challenges, wireless service providers are adopting a complementary approach, integrating microcells and DAS with traditional macrocell infrastructure.However, DAS applications, like all RF systems, depend on accurate signal propagation. Good signal integrity mostly relies on using meticulously designed high-frequency printed circuit board assemblies (HF PCBAs) within the DAS system’s RF circuitry. This article explains how to design scalable HF PCBAs for various DAS applications, paving the way from traditional macrocells to the microcell-driven future of 5G technology.<h2> </h2><h3>The Macrocell Era: A Broad Brush Approach</h3>Mobile communication underpins contemporary life, facilitating tasks ranging from voice calls to internet browsing. This technology relies on cellular networks, partitioning geographic areas into discrete cells. Each cell is equipped with a base station, or cell tower, managing communication within its designated area. The size of a cell is determined by the maximum distance a tower’s signal can reliably reach a device.Traditionally, wireless service providers have employed macrocells to provide broad coverage. Macrocells consist of base stations with high-gain antennas mounted on elevated structures, such as towers or tall buildings. This configuration maximizes signal propagation.Despite their benefits, macrocells have several drawbacks. These are some of the key challenges they present:<ul><li>Growing Need for Bandwidth: As of 2024, 99 percent of U.S. households subscribe to at least one streaming service. Meanwhile, video conferencing has become ubiquitous across a significant portion of the market. The global gaming community, numbering over a billion users, further amplified demand. These figures show a big rise in the need for more bandwidth. Yet, macrocells struggle with spectrum reuse and therefore cannot handle this growing need. Consequently, network congestion in densely populated areas has resulted in diminished speeds and service reliability.</li><li>Weak Coverage for Some Users: Macrocells are designed for broad geographic coverage, typically employing a single base station tower. While this approach is effective for expansive areas, users situated at the periphery of a cell may experience degraded service quality. Increased signal propagation distances and the presence of obstacles can lead to diminished signal strength, echo, and reduced data rates.</li><li>Capacity overload in hot spots: In areas with high user density, such as urban centers or event venues, macrocells often struggle to handle the heavy demand for mobile services. These ‘hot spots’ can have too many devices trying to connect to the same cell tower simultaneously, leading to network congestion.</li><li>Poor indoor coverage: Despite more than half of mobile usage occurring indoors, macrocell systems often exhibit suboptimal performance in indoor environments. Building materials commonly employed in construction, such as concrete and steel, significantly attenuate cellular signals. Furthermore, the attenuation is intensified by the increased distance between the building and the macrocell tower. Consequently, indoor coverage and capacity are severely limited, resulting in unreliable mobile communication within most buildings.</li><li>5G Limitations: 5G technology uses high-frequency band signals, specifically millimeter waves (mmWaves), which make it possible to send large amounts of data quickly. However, these signals don’t travel very far. They also get easily blocked by buildings, trees, and rain. This makes it hard for 5G signals to be sent and received using macrocells, where cell towers are designed to cover large areas and are often far away from users.</li></ul><h2> </h2><h3>The Rise of Microcells and DAS</h3>Microcells and Distributed Antenna Systems (DAS) represent specialized wireless network solutions designed to augment traditional macrocell infrastructure. These technologies offer a targeted and economically viable approach to enhancing coverage and capacity in both outdoor and indoor settings. A microcell constitutes a type of small cell network characterized by the deployment of mini-base stations, or nodes. These low-power antennas deliver a capacity comparable to macrocell base stations while serving a significantly smaller geographic area. In urban environments, microcell nodes are often discreetly integrated into existing infrastructure, such as streetlights and utility poles. This aesthetic integration distinguishes microcells from their larger, more conspicuous macrocell counterparts. The advantages of microcells include: <ul><li>Better Coverage: Carriers use microcells to improve coverage in hard-to-reach places, like behind buildings or at the edges of macrocells, where signals often weaken or drop.</li><li>Capacity Offload: Microcells help to reduce the load on macrocell towers by handling part of the data traffic. This redistribution of traffic significantly increases total network capacity. Also, these nodes are connected via optical fibers, enabling them to manage large volumes of data at high speeds.</li><li>Enhanced User Experience: Users may be far from macrocells, which have one signal source. Microcell nodes, on the other hand, are strategically placed closer to users across multiple locations. This proximity makes the coverage more stable. Also, in densely populated urban areas, the microcell network densification improves signal quality and capacity, giving users better service.</li><li>Supports 5G: Microcell antennas use mid-band and high-band frequency signals (millimeter waves) and are positioned nearer to users, making them more suitable for 5G networks compared to macrocells. For example, in 2020, Verizon deployed many microcell nodes to support what it calls its “5G Ultra Wideband” service.</li><li>Blends Better with City Infrastructure: Microcell nodes are less noticeable than macrocell towers and can be easily added to cities. This makes them very useful in places with strict zoning rules. Or, in densely populated cities like New York, where installing a large macrocell tower might be impractical due to space limitations. Microcells are a discreet and efficient way to increase network capacity and coverage.</li></ul><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1727874168900-1727874168900.png" class="fr-fic fr-dib"><a href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/8913770" target="_blank">DAS deployment</a> DAS, on the other hand, is primarily used to provide reliable indoor wireless service in venues where signals from external cell towers cannot penetrate effectively.Carriers deploy DAS in high-capacity venues such as stadiums and airports. They also use it to improve coverage in places that are hard to reach, like subways and tunnels. Different types of DAS are tailored for specific settings, from homes and small offices to large public spaces and major airports.The DAS starts with a signal source, which can be cellular signals from an outdoor antenna that picks up signals from nearby cell towers or direct feeds from a microcell base station. This primary signal, known as the donor signal, is then distributed throughout localized areas via antenna nodes.These nodes are strategically placed throughout the area to provide even coverage. This could include places like individual floors of a building, specific rooms, or outdoor spaces within a complex.One of the primary benefits of DAS is that the antenna nodes are placed close to users. This shorter transmission distance helps reduce signal attenuation. The antenna nodes are also simple, inexpensive, and power-efficient.Another significant advantage of DAS is its ability to provide high spatial diversity gain. The system can send and receive signals over multiple paths. This improves the reliability and quality of communication. It also supports flexible and efficient resource management, adapting to different user demands and conditions for optimal performance.<h2> </h2><h3>Compare and Contrast: DAS vs. Microcells</h3>While both DAS and microcells are designed to improve cellular coverage in specific areas, they have distinct characteristics and applications. DAS, characterized by a centralized architecture, is optimized for expansive coverage areas and high user capacities, making it suitable for large venues. Conversely, microcells employ a standalone approach, offering more localized coverage and are typically deployed in smaller spaces. Regarding flexibility, DAS supports multiple carriers while microcells tend to be carrier-specific. Though distinct, these technologies can be complementary, providing comprehensive wireless coverage in complex environments. Here’s a breakdown of key differences:<table><thead><tr><th> </th><th><h5>Distributed Antenna System (DAS)</h5></th><th><h5>Microcells</h5></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Network architecture</td><td>Point-to-multipoint.</td><td>Point-to-point.</td></tr><tr><td>Coverage area</td><td>Larger, often encompassing entire buildings or outdoor venues.</td><td>Smaller, typically covering a single floor or a small outdoor area.</td></tr><tr><td>Antennas</td><td>Multiple antennas connected to a central headend.</td><td>Single or multiple antennas, but with a simpler setup than DAS.</td></tr><tr><td>Capacity</td><td>Higher capacity, capable of handling large numbers of users simultaneously.</td><td>Lower capacity compared to DAS, but still sufficient for most indoor environments.</td></tr><tr><td>Flexibility</td><td>Can be shared by multiple carriers, offering neutral host opportunities.</td><td>Often carrier-specific, but some models support multiple carriers.</td></tr><tr><td>Complexity</td><td>Generally more complex to install and manage due to the distributed nature.</td><td>Simpler to install and manage compared to DAS.</td></tr></tbody></table><h2> </h2><h3>The Challenge of High-Frequency PCBAs in MicroCells and DAS</h3>Microcells and DAS systems benefit from using mid-band and high-band frequencies (mmWaves) to deliver fast data speeds and increased capacity. However, high-frequency circuits–like those utilized in microcells and DAS–are more sensitive to PCB material selection, fabrication, and assembly. Thus, developing HF PCB assemblies for microcells and DAS systems will likely present the following issues:<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1727874191064-1727874191063.png" class="fr-fic fr-dib"> <ul><li>Impedance mismatch sensitivity: At high frequencies, the PCB trace must be treated as a transmission line due to dominant AC characteristics like impedance, inductance, and capacitance. Impedance mismatches among the transmission line, source, and receiver can cause signal errors. These include signal overshoot, undershoot, and ringing.</li><li>Transmission loss due to dielectric absorption: High-frequency signals excite polarized molecules in the substrate, causing the substrate to absorb and convert some of the signal energy to heat. This absorption decreases signal strength.</li><li>Signal attenuation due to skin effect: At high frequencies, the current flows mainly through a thin layer on the surface of the conductor. This is called the ‘skin’ of the conductor. Because the current is limited to this outer layer, the resistance of the PCB trace increases. This higher resistance leads to more signal attenuation.</li><li>Crosstalk: Crosstalk refers to the unwanted coupling of signals between neighboring traces on a PCB assembly. This issue is particularly common in complex circuits, such as those found in microcells and DAS, which often require densely packed, multilayer PCBs.</li><li>Highly sensitive to conductor roughness: The surfaces of conductors on PCB assemblies are not perfectly smooth. This roughness increases the conductor’s resistance, slowing the signal velocity and altering the signal’s phase angle response. These effects are more noticeable at higher operating frequencies.</li><li>Thermal Issues: As frequency increases, more heat is generated due to more skin effect. Heat also comes from core losses in inductors and transformers and from switching losses in high-speed transistors. If this heat buildup is not regulated, it will lower the dielectric constant of the PCB’s dielectric layer. This decrease changes the PCB’s impedance and affects signal integrity</li></ul><h2> </h2><h3>Designing Scalable HF PCBAs for Diverse DAS Applications</h3>Here are some important considerations to keep in mind when designing PCB assemblies for microcells and DAS to handle high-frequency signals.<table><thead><tr><th><h5>Design Factor</h5></th><th><h5>Design Tips</h5></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Material Selection</td><td>Choose a dielectric with a low-loss tangent to minimize signal loss and maximize power delivery. Choose a dielectric with a low dielectric constant for fast signal propagation. Choose a dielectric that maintains consistent loss tangent and dielectric constant across temperature variations and the application’s bandwidth. Use smooth, low-profile copper to decrease conductor loss, maintain faster signal velocity, and reduce phase angle response changes. To avoid unwanted resonances, keep dielectric thickness and conductor width below one-tenth of the wavelength at the frequency of interest.</td></tr><tr><td>Fabrication &amp; Assembly Process</td><td>Enig finishes can be used in some DAS applications, but other options may provide better performance. Avoid ENIG finishes if variations in Ni-plated thickness alter phase angle response too much. Use smoother plating alternatives like immersion tin (ImSn) or immersion silver (ImAg) instead. Ensure the fabrication process is well-controlled. Variations in conductor geometry, dielectric thickness, and dielectric properties during mass production can cause impedance mismatches in the PCB and alter the phase angle response. Reduce crosstalk by routing all traces perpendicular to each other, increasing the distance between layers, minimizing the gap between the signal and reference layers, and using differential routing techniques where possible. To reduce impedance mismatches, understand and appropriately apply termination schemes.</td></tr><tr><td>Thermal Management</td><td>Incorporate heat sinks, heat pipes, copper coins or inlays, and&nbsp;<a href="https://www.macrofab.com/blog/via-in-pad-pcb-design/" target="_blank">thermal vias</a> to efficiently dissipate heat. Consider using thermally conductive materials for the PCB substrate to enhance heat management.</td></tr><tr><td>Testing and Validation</td><td>Before fabricating your PCB boards, use <a href="https://www.macrofab.com/blog/pcba-signal-integrity-problems/" target="_blank">signal integrity (SI)</a> tools with strong capabilities to simulate and predict how impedance mismatches, crosstalk, inductance, propagation delays, and other factors will affect signal performance. Always include simulations for impedance, propagation delay, Method of Moments (MoM), and electromagnetic field in your testing protocol.</td></tr></tbody></table> <h2> </h2><h3>Conclusion</h3>As the demand for high-speed data continues to escalate, 5G has emerged as the vanguard of wireless communication technology. Characterized by its promise of enhanced data rates (up to 20 Gbps), increased capacity, reduced latency, improved reliability, flexibility, and advanced device-to-device communication, 5G systems are driving the evolution of wireless networks. To maintain a competitive edge, carriers are increasingly integrating microcells and DAS into their infrastructure to support 5G deployment.The realization of high-capacity, low-latency, and flexible 5G systems necessitates meticulous HF PCBA design within microcell and DAS components. This article has explored the critical design considerations and challenges associated with HF PCB assemblies in these applications.To successfully navigate the complexities of HF PCBA manufacturing, establishing a partnership with a skilled and experienced manufacturing partner is essential. A qualified manufacturer can provide the necessary expertise, resources, and capacity to produce high-quality HF PCBAs that meet stringent performance requirements and adhere to tight production timelines. <h4 id="isPasted">Stop chasing updates, and start making progress.</h4> <a href="https://factory.macrofab.com/quick_quote/?utm_source=direct&utm_medium=none" target="_blank">Get an Instant Quote now</a>

High-frequency circuits-like those utilized in microcells and DAS-are more sensitive to PCB material selection, fabrication, and assembly.

From Macrocells to Microcells: Designing Scalable High-Frequency PCBAs for Diversified DAS Applications

<h2 id="isPasted">Prospects of Beyond 5G/6G and technology to achieve it</h2><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1727661978457-img-0001+%281%29.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Mobile communications systems are dramatically enhanced on B5G/6GBeyond 5G (5th generation and later mobile communications system: hereinafter “B5G”) / 6G (6th generation mobile communications system) is expected to be applied and spread in popularity as a new form of information communications infrastructure from the 2030s. In addition to enhancing 5G (5th generation mobile communications system) features such as ultra-high speed, large capacity, low latency, and simultaneous multiple connections, B5G/6G is expected to have ultralow power consumption as well as features such as expandability of covered communication areas (coverage), network autonomy, ultra safety, and reliability.On this website, as technologies applied to achieve the characteristics of B5G/6G, we have covered future technology trends such as high-speed communication and sensing through <a href="https://article.murata.com/en-global/article/thz-communications-and-sensing-expected-for-b5g-6g" target="_blank">terahertz waves</a> (and subterahertz waves), as well as significant coverage expansions through&nbsp;<a href="https://article.murata.com/en-global/article/what-is-a-ntn-of-haps-and-satellites" target="_blank">Non-Terrestrial Networks (NTN)</a>. This article explains the prospects of power consumption reduction in communications equipment as well as communications resource optimization in multiple simultaneous connections through autonomy that apply AI (Artificial Intelligence) and ML (Machine Learning), which are expected to further enhance 5G.<h2>AI/ML in B5G/6G as well as their importance</h2>AI (Artificial Intelligence) and ML (Machine Learning), which are technologies that are crucial to 5G and next-generation mobile communications systems, are both computer science terms. Let’s review what they are about and touch on their differences.<h3>Overview and differences of AI and ML</h3>AI refers to the comprehensive ability that enables computers and machines to imitate human actions. On the other hand, ML is an application of AI, and refers to the education process applied to systems that enable them to compare and classify massive amounts of data (big data) using a neural network*1. Repeating this process eliminates the explicit use of programs, enabling computers and machines to learn to provide predictions as well as perform automatic processing.*1 A neural network is a mathematical model that was modeled based on the workings of the human brain and applied in a simplified format on a computer. It is comprised of input and output layers as well as an intermediate layer in between.<h3>The importance of AI/ML in B5G/6G</h3><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1727662038930-img-0002+%281%29.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Prepare a network assumed to make use of AI/ML for B5G/6GConsidering the advanced features expected from B5G/6G such as ultra-high speed, large capacity, low latency, simultaneous multiple connections, ultralow power consumption as well as autonomous predictions and control which were mentioned at the beginning of this article, it will be difficult to use them with fixed network settings or at times having to optimize and control the network manually. Additionally, issues such as increased power consumption and environmental load that occur due to communications infrastructure enhancement cannot be overlooked.As AI/ML are technologies required to solve these kinds of issues, research has been performed to control and optimize communications network management in anticipation of the enhancement of 5G, which began formally being applied for commercial use around 2020, as well as the age of B5G/6G, which is assumed to come around 2030. Furthermore, while 5G applies AI/ML technologies simply as additional features, B5G/6G is an AI-native mobile communications system that assumes the use of AI/ML.<h2>The introduction objective and utilization prospects of AI/ML in B5G/6G</h2>As previously mentioned, AI/ML are considered as solutions for future mobile communications system issues. Here, we will explain the objectives of AI/ML introduction as well as several desired use examples.<h3>What we aim to achieve by introducing AI/ML to communications network management</h3>The following are examples of the main objectives we wish to achieve by introducing AI/ML to communications network management for 5G and B5G/6G.<ul><li>Throughput*2 enhancement Efficient wireless communications through communications resource management and optimization</li><li>Energy saving Reduction of power consumption through efficient network operation</li><li>Communications trouble prediction and response Prompt prediction and autonomous response to communications latencies and connection failures</li></ul>*2 Throughput is the amount of data that, for example, devices such as computers can process per unit time and indicates the effective transmission rating per unit time for communication lines.Below, we will explain the prospects of future AI/ML use foreseeing these objectives.<h3>Communications optimization through autonomy using AI/ML</h3><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1727662107374-img-0003+%281%29.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Achieving desired specifications for B5G/6G through AI/ML introductionTo communicate large capacities at high speed on more and more devices, B5G/6G is required to optimize communications resource use for both the sender and receiver in real time, and perform it at a higher level. For example, for technologies such as beamforming*3 for next-generation communications satellites of ground base stations and <a href="https://article.murata.com/en-global/article/what-is-a-ntn-of-haps-and-satellites" target="_blank">Non-Terrestrial Networks (NTN)</a> as well as&nbsp;<a href="https://article.murata.com/en-global/article/thz-communications-and-sensing-expected-for-b5g-6g" target="_blank">terahertz waves</a> (and subterahertz waves) with a short communications distance and attenuate due to liquids such as rain, the performance may vary depending on condition changes such as positional relationships between each device and base station as well as the weather and radio wave demand. Here, we teach data related to weather and radio wave demand per time zone and location using AI/ML, and have it make predictions swiftly. Based on this, by optimizing communications equipment control, we will be capable of making communications resource use more efficient and reduce power consumption through learning capacity and autonomy as well as making stability improvements for communications and connectivity.*3 Beamforming is a technology that controls radio waves to be sent collectively in a specific direction. When outputting radio waves from multiple antennas, by adjusting the phase and power intensity of each radio wave, the signal is strengthened in one direction while being canceled out and weakened in another direction. This characteristic is utilized for the control.Additionally, introduction of IoT devices and systems using wireless communications are steadily increasing following the transition of society into a smart society that includes smart cities, smart factories, and smart homes. It is also quite common that cellular circuits are applied for cloud servers and data communications. For example, the use of AI (Edge AI) to autonomously send and receive required data by having multiple IoT equipment determine what to filter, such as when sending limited data when the image sensor recognizes specific conditions, can be considered as a valid AI use technique to reduce the burden for power consumption and communications resources.<h3>Learning enhancement as well as prediction and autonomy responses for communications latency and failures through digital twins</h3><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1727662153437-img-0004+%282%29.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Learning enhancement through digital twins promotes AI/ML autonomyLearning enhancement and simulations using digital twins*4 are examples of use methods for AI/ML that are expected to be applied in the age of B5G/6G. For example, when constructing smart cities, they can be applied to generate simulations by applying various conditions in virtual spaces and then performing proof of concept (PoC) for equipment and systems in the real world.Related articles:&nbsp;<a href="https://article.murata.com/en-global/article/examples-of-diverse-applications-of-3d-urban-models" target="_blank">3D City Models Accelerate the Creation of Smart Cities and Digital Twins, Data-Driven Efforts in Electronics</a>Applying possible communications latencies and communications interferences to AI/ML learning enhancement and simulations in communications networks of virtual spaces will be effective in AI predictive detection of network failures. We can assume a communications system with high autonomy by applying these learned features to real world scenarios.*4 Digital twins are virtual replicas of environments and systems, similar to those in the real world, generated in virtual spaces on a computer.Murata Manufacturing Co., Ltd. develops and manufactures wireless connectivity modules as well as edge AI modules that can be applied to image and audio recognition. For more details, access the following link for related products. In addition to our existing products, we are actively promoting R&amp;D for new products that will contribute to the development of future wireless communications technologies.

Beyond 5G (5th generation and later mobile communications system: hereinafter “B5G”) / 6G (6th generation mobile communications system) is expected to be applied and spread in popularity as a new form of information communications infrastructure from the 2030s.

Communications network management applying AI & ML: Technological Trends Leading to Beyond 5G & 6G

Imagine how a phone call works: Your voice is converted into electronic signals, shifted up to higher frequencies, transmitted over long distances, and then shifted back down so it can be heard clearly on the other end. The process enabling this shifting of signal frequencies is called frequency mixing, and it is essential for communication technologies like radio and Wi-Fi. Frequency mixers are vital components in many electronic devices and typically operate using frequencies that oscillate billions (GHz, gigahertz) to trillions (THz, terahertz) of times per second.&nbsp;Now imagine a frequency mixer that works at a quadrillion (PHz, petahertz) times per second — up to a million times faster. This frequency range corresponds to the oscillations of the electric and magnetic fields that make up light waves.&nbsp;Petahertz-frequency mixers would allow us to shift signals up to optical frequencies and then back down to more conventional electronic frequencies, enabling the transmission and processing of vastly larger amounts of information at many times higher speeds. This leap in speed isn’t just about doing things faster; it’s about enabling entirely new capabilities.Lightwave electronics (or petahertz electronics) is an emerging field that aims to integrate optical and electronic systems at incredibly high speeds, leveraging the ultrafast oscillations of light fields. The key idea is to harness the electric field of light waves, which oscillate on sub-femtosecond (10-15&nbsp;seconds) timescales, to directly drive electronic processes. This allows for the processing and manipulation of information at speeds far beyond what is possible with current electronic technologies. In combination with other petahertz electronic circuitry, a petahertz electronic mixer would allow us to process and analyze vast amounts of information in real time and transfer larger amounts of data over the air at unprecedented speeds. The MIT team’s demonstration of a lightwave-electronic mixer at petahertz-scale frequencies is a first step toward making communication technology faster, and progresses research toward developing new, miniaturized lightwave electronic circuitry capable of handling optical signals directly at the nanoscale.In the 1970s, scientists began exploring ways to extend electronic frequency mixing into the terahertz range using diodes. While these early efforts showed promise, progress stalled for decades. Recently, however, advances in nanotechnology have reignited this area of research. Researchers discovered that tiny structures like nanometer-length-scale needle tips and plasmonic antennas could function similarly to those early diodes but at much higher frequencies.A recent open-access&nbsp;<a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adq0642" target="_blank">study published in&nbsp;Science Advances</a> by Matthew Yeung, Lu-Ting Chou, Marco Turchetti, Felix Ritzkowsky, Karl K. Berggren, and Phillip D. Keathley at MIT has demonstrated a significant step forward. They developed an electronic frequency mixer for signal detection that operates beyond 0.350 PHz using tiny nanoantennae. These nanoantennae can mix different frequencies of light, enabling analysis of signals oscillating orders of magnitude faster than the fastest accessible to conventional electronics. Such petahertz electronic devices could enable developments that ultimately revolutionize fields that require precise analysis of extremely fast optical signals, such as spectroscopy and imaging, where capturing femtosecond-scale dynamics is crucial (a femtosecond is one-millionth of one-billionth of a second).The team’s study highlights the use of nanoantenna networks to create a broadband, on-chip electronic optical frequency mixer. This innovative approach allows for the accurate readout of optical wave forms spanning more than one octave of bandwidth. Importantly, this process worked using a commercial turnkey laser that can be purchased off the shelf, rather than a highly customized laser.While optical frequency mixing is possible using nonlinear materials, the process is purely optical (that is, it converts light input to light output at a new frequency). Furthermore, the materials have to be many wavelengths in thickness, limiting the device size to the micrometer scale (a micrometer is one-millionth of a meter). &nbsp;In contrast, the lightwave-electronic method demonstrated by the authors uses a light-driven tunneling mechanism that offers high nonlinearities for frequency mixing and direct electronic output using nanometer-scale devices (a nanometer is one-billionth of a meter).While this study focused on characterizing light pulses of different frequencies, the researchers envision that similar devices will enable one to construct circuits using light waves. This device, with bandwidths spanning multiple octaves, could provide new ways to investigate ultrafast light-matter interactions, accelerating advancements in ultrafast source technologies.&nbsp;This work not only pushes the boundaries of what is possible in optical signal processing but also bridges the gap between the fields of electronics and optics. By connecting these two important areas of research, this study paves the way for new technologies and applications in fields like spectroscopy, imaging, and communications, ultimately advancing our ability to explore and manipulate the ultrafast dynamics of light.The research was initially supported by the U.S. Air Force Office of Scientific Research. Ongoing research into harmonic mixing is based upon work supported by the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Science, Office of Basic Energy Sciences. Matthew Yeung acknowledges fellowship support from MathWorks, the U.S. National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship Program, and MPS-Ascend Postdoctoral Research Fellowship. Lu-Ting Chou acknowledges financial support from the China's Ministry of Education for the Overseas Internship Program from the Chinese National Science and Technology Council for the doctoral fellowship program. This work was carried out, in part, through the use of MIT.nano.

The demonstration of a lightwave-electronic mixer at petahertz-scale frquencies is a first step toward making communication technology faster and progresses research toward developing new, miniaturized lightwave electronic circuitry capable of handling optical signals directly at the nanoscale. Image: Sampson Wilcox/Research Laboratory of Electronics

Lightwave electronics aim to integrate optical and electronic systems at incredibly high speeds, leveraging the ultrafast oscillations of light fields.

Nanostructures enable on-chip lightwave-electronic frequency mixer

A view into how nanoscale building blocks can rearrange into different organized structures on command is now possible with an approach that combines an electron microscope, a small sample holder with microscopic channels, and computer simulations, according to a new study by researchers at the University of Michigan and Indiana University.The approach could eventually enable smart materials and coatings that can switch between different optical, mechanical and electronic properties.“One of my favorite examples of this phenomenon in nature is in chameleons,” said <a href="https://che.engin.umich.edu/people/dwyer-tobias/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tobias Dwyer</a>, U-M doctoral student in chemical engineering and co-first author of the study published in Nature Chemical Engineering. “Chameleons change color by altering the spacing between nanocrystals in their skin. The dream is to design a dynamic and multifunctional system that can be as good as some of the examples that we see in biology.”The imaging technique lets researchers watch how nanoparticles react to changes in their environment in real time, offering an unprecedented window into their assembly behavior.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzI1MzIxMzE4NjkzLWZsb3ctY2VsbC5qcGciLCJlZGl0cyI6eyJyZXNpemUiOnsid2lkdGgiOjk1MCwiZml0IjoiY292ZXIifX19" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">An illustration of an imaging technique that allows researchers to watch how nanoparticles respond to changes in their environment in real time. The blue lines represent the beam of an electron microscope as it impacts gold nanoblocks suspended in liquid in a small sample holder device called a liquid flow cell. Image credit: Ella Maru Studio.In the study, the Indiana team first suspended nanoparticles, a class of materials smaller than the average bacteria cell, in tiny channels of liquid on a microfluidic flow cell. This type of device allowed the researchers to flush different kinds of fluid into the cell on the fly while they viewed the mixture under their electron microscope. The researchers learned that the instrument gave the nanoparticles—which normally are attracted to each other—just enough electrostatic repulsion to push them apart and allow them to assemble into ordered arrangements.The nanoparticles, which are cubes made of gold, either perfectly aligned their faces in a tidy cluster or formed a more messy arrangement. The final arrangement of the material depended on the properties of the liquid the blocks were suspended in, and flushing new liquids into the flow cell caused the nanoblocks to switch between the two arrangements.The experiment was a proof of concept for how to steer nanoparticles into desired structures. Nanoparticles are too small to manually manipulate, but the approach could help engineers learn to reconfigure other nanoparticles by changing their environment.“You might have been able to move the particles into new liquids before, but you wouldn’t have been able to watch how they respond to their new environment in real-time,” said <a href="https://www.chem.indiana.edu/faculty/xingchen-ye/" target="_blank">Xingchen Ye</a>, IU associate professor of chemistry who developed the experimental technique and is the study’s lead corresponding author.“We can use this tool to image many types of nanoscale objects, like chains of molecules, viruses, lipids and composite particles. Pharmaceutical companies could use this technique to learn how viruses interact with cells in different conditions, which could impact drug development.”<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1725321753505-ezgif-6-b9c5db5d11.gif" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">A view through an electron microscope of gold nanoparticles reconfiguring themselves in response to researchers changing the liquid the gold nanoparticles are suspended in—either butanol or a mix of octane and butanol. The black and white image on the left is unedited. At right, the gold nanoparticles are color-coded by their orientation. Initially floating in butanol, they’re arranged in a skewed crystal with more unfilled space in its center. Green and orange particles are mixed with blue particles. After researchers change the liquid to a mixture of butanol and octane, the squares’ faces align more closely together and more of the squares in the center of the crystal turn blue and green, representing a more ordered arrangement. Animation credit: Tobias Dwyer, Glotzer Lab, University of Michigan.An electron microscope isn’t necessary to activate the particles in practical morphable materials, the researchers said. Changes in light and pH could also serve that purpose.But to extend the technique to different kinds of nanoparticles, the researchers will need to know how to change their liquids and microscope settings to arrange the particles. Computer simulations run by the U-M team open the door to that future work by identifying the forces that caused the particles to interact and assemble.“We think we now have a good enough understanding of all the physics at play to predict what would happen if we use particles of a different shape or material,” said&nbsp;<a href="https://che.engin.umich.edu/people/moore-timothy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tim Moore</a>, U-M assistant research scientist of chemical engineering and co-first author of the study. He designed the computer simulations together with Dwyer and&nbsp;<a href="https://che.engin.umich.edu/people/glotzer-sharon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sharon Glotzer</a>, the Anthony C. Lembke Department Chair of Chemical Engineering at U-M and a corresponding author of the study.“The combination of experiments and simulations is exciting because we now have a platform to design, predict, make and observe in real time new, morphable materials together with our IU partners,” said Glotzer, who is also the John Werner Cahn Distinguished University Professor and Stuart W. Churchill Collegiate Professor of Chemical Engineering.

It’s a step toward smart coatings that change color—or other properties—on the fly.

Morphable materials: Researchers coax nanoparticles to reconfigure themselves

Soft polymers with the combined properties of electrolytes and traditional polymers offer some unique and desirable properties that can be drastically changed on demand. These gels, called metallo-polyelectrolyte complexes (MPECs, pronounced "EM-pecks"), can be stimulated externally by magnetic, electrochemical, and optical stimuli, making them ideal for some energy devices, responsive actuators, and nanofiltration systems. Metal ions within their cores provide the materials with these unique capabilities and form dynamic, "reversible" ionic bonds with polymer chains rather than much harder to break covalent bonds.While scientists had previously identified and, in some cases, synthesized, MPECs that demonstrate unusual material properties, which vary, for example, with the pH of the solution before they form into gels, the exact source of those unusual mechanical properties had remained a mystery. In addition, earlier fabrication techniques often were not easily scaled and suffered from uneven composition.Now, through a combination of extensive laboratory experiments, computational theoretical work, and additive manufacturing, a team of Caltech scientists has developed a complete framework for understanding a class of MPECs from the level of molecular bonds up to that of material properties. As a result, the work, reported in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-50860-6#Ack1" target="_blank">a paper</a> in the journal Nature Communications, provides a road map of sorts for designing and tailor-making gels with desired functionality and mechanical properties."Our lab typically works on interesting materials, which respond to external stimuli because of the way we build them into specific micro- or nano-architectures. What's so interesting and exciting about MPECs is that they can be actuated even without that kind of architecture," says <a href="https://www.eas.caltech.edu/people/jrgreer?back_url=%2Fpeople" target="_blank">Julia R. Greer</a>, the Ruben F. and Donna Mettler Professor of Materials Science, Mechanics and Medical Engineering; and the Fletcher Jones Foundation Director of the <a href="https://kni.caltech.edu/" target="_blank">Kavli Nanoscience Institute</a> at Caltech. She explains that these materials can exhibit vastly different properties and responses. For example, by choice of metal ion and pH, a sample can be made that bends to the left or to the right depending on how fast a force is applied to it. In another case, a sample can fully dissolve in water or remain solid for several days, with the only difference being the metal's ionic charge."This opens the door for 'training' an entire suite of new materials—both computationally and experimentally—that can enable previously challenging technologies, from self-monitoring autonomous filters to advanced ion-exchange membranes and catalysts, and even artificial muscles," Greer says."We were really focused on making a bridge between the molecular level interactions to the mechanical properties on a global scale, providing insight into phenomena that we can't necessarily see," says Seola Lee, co-lead author of a new paper about the work and a PhD student in mechanical engineering in the Greer lab who is currently a research scientist intern at Meta. "We hope that the guidelines we've demonstrated with will help people tap into the design territory in terms of what they will be able to make with these materials."Central to the changeability of MPECs are the metal ions at their cores and the connections they make to charged polymer chains. Many transition metals are multivalent, meaning they can have more than one possible charge. Valency is determined by an atom's outer shell of electrons. Iron, for example, can be present as Fe2+, a form in which it would likely attach to two polymer chains, or Fe3+, which would be more likely to bind with three chains.The Caltech team determined that the metal ions' valency is one of several levers that can be adjusted to tune the properties of MPECs, with the others being pH of the solution and the solvent used.For their investigation, the group used a process called stereolithography, a type of 3D printing where a light-induced polymerization creates a solid structure layer by layer. Carrying out this printing process with a resin that includes various metal ions, it is possible to print out a stable polymer called polyacrylic acid (PAA) with these metal ions bound to it. Next, they conducted exhaustive thermal and mechanical experiments on those materials to probe the material responses at different length scales. Pierre Walker, co-lead author of the paper and a graduate student in chemical engineering in the lab of&nbsp;<a href="https://cce.caltech.edu/people/zhen-gang-wang?back_url=%2Fpeople" target="_blank">Zhen-Gang Wang</a>, the Dick and Barbara Dickinson Professor of Chemical Engineering, analyzed the data and calculated how to model the details from the molecular level up to the full material scale."A lot of this investigation was kind of like walking around in the dark, where there were many different levers that at the time we had no idea were present," Walker says. "Other papers have looked at one or two effects at most in their study. The fact that we were able to couple all three, and the fact that we are able to not only understand how each of them interacts with each other, but how they then impact the global property really makes it much easier for future users of MPEC gels to navigate the space."In the new paper, the authors describe a few examples of MPECs they were able to design using their new framework. One, a shape-memory polymer, looks like a yellow gummy flower that has bloomed and is lying flat. After heating the flower to 90 degrees Celsius, Lee manually lifted the petals, closing the flower into a bud shape. She then cooled the whole thing to -5 degrees C. When she brought the temperature back to 90 degrees C, the flower bloomed and returned to its original shape. Here, the valency of the metal dictated how well the material "remembered" its original shape. The gel made with aluminum (Al3+) returned to the open flower position much more quickly and completely than either calcium (Ca2+) or sodium (Na+).In a second example, the scientists made a gel strip where one side was fabricated with a high pH and the other with a lower pH. Based on the theoretical modeling, the scientists knew how the two sides should behave when submerged in different solutions. And just as expected, when the bilayer was submerged in water, it buckled to the left; when in an aluminum solution, it buckled to the right."We now have a really robust explanation for if you change some of these small molecular levers, here's what comes out at the global scale," says Seneca Velling, a former graduate student in the Greer group who is now completing his studies in the Origins and Habitability Lab at JPL, which Caltech manages for NASA. "Therefore, if you want a global scale property, you can back it out by thinking about what starting conditions make that global property a reality, which is a really cool way to design a material. You can now explain it top-down or bottom-up."Additional authors of the new paper, titled "<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-50860-6" target="_blank">Molecular Control via Dynamic Bonding Enables Material Responsiveness in Additively Manufactured Metallo-Polyelectrolytes</a>," are Amylynn Chen (PhD '23), Zane W. Taylor (BS '22), Cyrus J.B.M Fiori, Vatsa Gandhi (PhD '23, and Zhen-Gang Wang. The work was supported by funding from the&nbsp;<a href="https://cast.caltech.edu/" target="_blank">Center for Autonomous Systems and Technologies</a> at Caltech, the Army Research Office's Institute for Collaborative Biotechnologies, and the Schwartz/Reisman Foundation's Schwartz/Reisman Collaborative Science Program. Wang receives funding from the Hong Kong Quantum AI Lab and AIRInnoHK of the Hong Kong government.

Soft polymers with the combined properties of electrolytes and traditional polymers offer some unique and desirable properties that can be drastically changed on demand.

Materials Scientists Develop Road Map for Designing Responsive Gels with Unusual Properties

Not only do we need to cut carbon emissions to curb climate change, but many scientists say we also need to capture excess CO2 from the air to prevent continued climate impacts. Currently, however, carbon removal tends to be costly, and polluters may lack incentives to clean up their emissions.One solution is to create useful products from captured CO2, thus increasing the value of drawing it out of the air. Stanford engineers are proposing a way to do just that.In two recent papers, published in the&nbsp;<a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/jacs.4c03652" data-extlink="" target="_blank">Journal of the American Chemical Society</a>&nbsp;and <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/anie.202406761" data-extlink="" target="_blank">Angewandte Chemie</a>, a team of Stanford researchers demonstrated that it’s possible not only to convert carbon dioxide to ethanol but also to do so with very few byproducts. Previous efforts have not been able to design a reaction converting the gas with such high selectivity.The researchers chose to focus on ethanol – the same stuff that’s in alcoholic beverages – because the chemical is useful for many industries such as fuels, polymers, and pharmaceuticals. But right now ethanol is mostly made from crops such as corn harvested from vast acres in regions like the Midwest – the process is both land and resource intensive.The researchers propose a win-win: taking captured carbon dioxide and making ethanol, which would further reduce emissions by replacing more energy-intensive ethanol sources. “If we are able to turn CO2 into valuable chemicals, we close the cycle,” said the lead author of the two papers, Chengshuang Zhou, recent PhD graduate in chemical engineering. “We have the opportunity of not producing more carbon, but instead circulating the carbon that is already out there.”<h2>Creating the catalyst</h2>To test this idea, the researchers needed to combine carbon dioxide with hydrogen. But you can’t just put the two gases in a cylinder and shake them to make ethanol, because the reaction isn’t favorable. So the team needed to find a catalyst that would provide an extra kick, moving the reaction in the desired direction.To do so, they first considered the molecular structure of ethanol. “How do we cut several bonds to reconstruct CO2 so that we can retroactively come up with ways to synthesize ethanol from CO2?” Zhou asked. “This reaction would necessarily involve not only hydrogenation, essentially adding hydrogen to CO2, but also coupling two carbon atoms into one single molecule.”He identified that an ideal catalyst must produce at least two fragments, one deeply hydrogenated like methane (-CH3) and one partially hydrogenated like methanol (-CH2OH), which can then come together to form ethanol. He scoured the scientific literature for elements that can both synthesize methanol and encourage hydrogenation, arriving at ruthenium and indium. “Ruthenium has been well documented to be a great catalyst for the CO2 hydrogenation reaction to produce methane,” he said, while “indium oxide-based catalysts have been documented to catalyze CO2 hydrogenation to methanol.” The perfect match.Using nanoscale design and synthesis, the researchers created a ruthenium-indium oxide (Ru/In2O3) catalyst and put it to the test. In a stainless steel tube, the team flowed carbon dioxide and hydrogen across a small scoop of the powdered catalyst, adding pressure and heat to speed the reaction, and analyzed the gases that came out the other end.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1724891477747-schematic_0.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">A ruthenium-indium oxide catalyst that selectively converts CO2 and H2 into ethanol. Ruthenium nanoparticles (blue) are promoted by the encapsulation of both indium oxide (green) and functional organic polymers (pink). | Chengshuang ZhouIn their initial run, they produced mostly methanol, a promising first step reported in the&nbsp;Journal of the American Chemical Society&nbsp;that provided clues to the catalyst’s function. Now that they had one of two components, they could tweak the catalyst’s structure to encourage more stability, and thus produce ethanol.After the changes, they ran the experiment again and found that the input gases converted to 70% ethanol and only carbon monoxide as a byproduct, a finding reported in&nbsp;Angewandte Chemie. “That’s the biggest discovery,” said&nbsp;<a href="https://profiles.stanford.edu/matteo-cargnello" data-extlink="" target="_blank">Matteo Cargnello</a>, senior author of the papers and an associate professor of chemical engineering. “There was a way to direct this reaction to make mostly ethanol rather than other products.”This high selectivity of conversion is important because separating out ethanol from a mixture would be more energy intensive, which would somewhat defeat the purpose of the research. “If you can selectively make a simple, single product, that will absolutely reduce emissions,” said Cargnello.<h2>Scaling up to smokestacks</h2>While the team performed the experiment in a small tube, they believe the process could scale to settings like industrial chimneys. Before this work, “there hasn’t been a concise guiding principle” for converting carbon dioxide to ethanol, said Zhou. By demonstrating the potential to produce a high rate of ethanol, he believes the work sets the stage for future efforts to use metals that are more abundant. Ruthenium and indium are scarce metals, and using them for mass production of a catalyst would be costly.That’s Cargnello’s next step. He will work with elements in the first row of transition metals on the periodic table, which are far more common and therefore cheaper to scale. He plans to develop a catalyst that can be widely used in conjunction with various sources of carbon dioxide – including captured from the air or from a smokestack – to turn the gas into ethanol, which can then be bottled and sold.“Our hypothesis is that we can make it work with cheaper metals and then be able to scale it up,” Cargnello said. “Because we certainly want our discovery to not just be an academic discovery, we would like it to be translated into a larger scale process.”Cargnello is also a member of&nbsp;<a href="https://biox.stanford.edu/" data-extlink="" target="_blank">Stanford Bio-X</a>.Additional Stanford co-authors of the papers include graduate students Gennaro Liccardo, Jinwon Oh, and Sindhu Nathan; and postdoctoral researchers Michael Stone, Eric J. McShane, and Baraa Werghi.&nbsp;Other co-authors include researchers at the California Institute of Technology, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, and Lawrence Berkeley National Lab.&nbsp;

Researchers demonstrated that it’s possible not only to convert carbon dioxide to ethanol but also to do so with very few byproducts. | iStock/onurdongel

Stanford scientists designed a catalyst that turns carbon dioxide into ethanol, which could incentivize cleaning up emissions.

Turning carbon pollution into ethanol

“Nanomaterials” is a broad term used to describe chemical substances or materials in which a single unit is sized between 1 and 100 nanometers (a nanometer is a billionth of a meter). They include exotic materials such as carbon nanotubes, silver nanoparticles (used as antimicrobials), nanoporous materials, and many types of catalysts used for efficiently driving chemical reactions.Nanomaterials are currently used in a wide range of fields, from medicine to electronics, which means that the ability to determine their exact chemical composition is essential. Nonetheless, this proves challenging, because traditional methods for analyzing nanomaterials tend to be susceptible to low signal-to-noise ratios.For example, one extensively used method is energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), combined with scanning transmission electron microscopy. This technique provides detailed maps of where different elements are located within a sample, but it often produces noisy data, especially on such small objects, and mixed signals when different materials overlap, making precise chemical analysis difficult.The noisy data are usually “cleaned up” with various techniques, from simple spatial filtering to more sophisticated machine learning approaches like principal component analysis, that separate the signals from the noise, but they too have their drawbacks. For example, they can introduce errors, or struggle to distinguish between chemical signals when they are very similar.Now, three scientists at EPFL, Hui Chen, Duncan Alexander, and Cécile Hébert have developed a machine learning-based method called PSNMF (“non-negative matrix factorization-based pan-sharpening”) that enhances the clarity and accuracy of EDX data, making it easier to identify and quantify different chemical elements in nanomaterials.The team started by leveraging a special characteristic of their data called “Poisson noise”. This type of noise occurs because the detection of X-ray photons is random. When the electron beam hits the sample, it produces X-ray photons, but the number detected varies randomly each time, creating a noisy, grainy pattern known as Poisson noise.To improve the clarity of their data, the researchers combined data from nearby pixels, enhancing the signal-to-noise ratio in the spectrum at the cost of the spatial resolution.They then applied a machine learning method called "non-negative matrix factorization" (NMF) to this clearer dataset. NMF is a mathematical technique that breaks down a large dataset into simpler, smaller parts, ensuring all parts are non-negative, which helps identify patterns in the data. This approach gave them good spectral data at the cost of having blurry images with large pixels.Next, they repeated the NMF process on the original high-resolution dataset to preserve detailed spatial information, but initializing the factorization with the previously identified spectral components. Finally, they combined the results from both steps to produce a high-quality dataset, that has both high spectral fidelity and high spatial resolution.The researchers validated PSNMF using synthetic data, computed thanks to a modelling algorithm developed in the lab. Those data mimicked real-world challenges, such as analyzing mineral samples formed under extreme conditions. The method proved highly effective, accurately identifying and separating different materials, even those in tiny amounts.When applied to actual samples, including a nanomineral and a nanocatalyst, PSNMF successfully separated and quantified overlapping materials. This precise analysis is crucial for understanding and developing new technologies that rely on these complex nanostructures.PSNMF is a significant improvement in nanoscale chemical analysis. By providing accurate results despite noisy data and overlapping signals, this method enhances our ability to study and utilize nanomaterials in various fields, from advanced electronics to medical devices.<hr>ReferencesHui Chen, Duncan T.L. Alexander, Cécile Hébert. Leveraging machine learning for advanced nanoscale X-ray analysis: Unmixing multicomponent signals and enhancing chemical quantification. NanoLetters 06 August 2024. DOI:&nbsp;<a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.nanolett.4c02446" title="DOI URL" target="_blank" rel="noopener">10.1021/acs.nanolett.4c02446</a>

EPFL scientists have developed an AI-based technique to improve chemical analysis of nanomaterials, overcoming challenges of noisy data and mixed signals.

AI enhances chemical analysis at the nanoscale

Manufacturing cars with strong, lightweight aluminum alloys rather than steel could improve fuel efficiency and extend electric vehicle range, but the material’s instability at high temperatures has held the alloys back from widespread adoption.Creating tiny, reinforcing particles of titanium carbide (TiC) directly inside of molten aluminum results in a stronger, more temperature resistant aluminum-based material called a metal matrix nanocomposite.Up to this point, researchers have not understood how these nanoparticles form, or how they interact with other features in the microstructure, hindering production of the material on an industrial scale.University of Michigan researchers have used a unique high-resolution, 3D x-ray technique to provide a first glimpse into how nanoparticles form, where they are located and how they facilitate further solidification of the molten metal. A paper on the work will be published in the September edition of Acta Materialia.“Most metals start their lifetimes in the liquid state. How they convert from liquid to solid will ultimately determine their microstructures, and hence, their properties and applications,” said <a href="https://mse.engin.umich.edu/people/shahani" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ashwin Shahani</a>, an associate professor of materials science and engineering and chemical engineering at U-M and co-corresponding author of the study.“The study enabled us to understand exactly how the nanoparticles interact with secondary phases in casting, which has been a major challenge for the past half-century.”&nbsp;As nanoparticles are less than 100 nanometers, one ten-thousandth of a millimeter, the researchers used a powerful imaging technique called synchrotron-based x-ray nanotomography to visualize metal microstructure nondestructively in 3D—a feat not possible with conventional imaging approaches.To obtain the visualizations, the researchers created an aluminum composite reinforced with titanium carbide (TiC). That involved a flux-assisted reaction in which a mixture of carbon powder and titanium-bearing salt was reacted with an aluminum melt. 3D reconstructions revealed an unexpected diversity of titanium aluminide (Al3Ti) intermetallic structures, including one that formed directly on TiC nanoparticles larger than 200 nm in diameter. In that case, the Al3Ti crystals grew into an unusual orthogonal plate structure. Meanwhile, the TiC nanoparticles smaller than the 200 nanometer threshold split the Al3Ti intermetallic plates during solidification, forming branched structures.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1722783000473-ezgif-6-9087a81780.gif" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">A magnified view of the “orthogonal plates” of Al3Ti that nucleated on a TiC nanoparticle. The structure measures 10 μm along its longest dimension. Credit: Ashwin Shahani, Michigan Engineering.In addition to imaging, the researchers used phase-field simulations to fill in spatiotemporal “gaps” in the experiments and propose a mechanism for microstructure formation.“We now have evidence that the nanoparticles form well before the intermetallics, and not the other way around, which has important implications regarding the nucleation of the nanoparticles in the first place,” said Shahani.With these results in hand, industry partners can now guide TiC and Al3Ti formation when manufacturing aluminum composites on a large scale—adjusting solidification pathways or alloy chemistries to achieve the desired microstructure and its associated properties.“We have known for a long time that nano-sized particles could improve the performance of metal matrix composites, but the materials could not be produced at scale. We now understand the formation mechanisms that will enable our industry partners to optimize the process for lightweighting applications,” said Alan Taub, a Robert H. Lurie Professor of Engineering and director of the Electric Vehicle Center at U-M and co-corresponding author of the study.Taub is also a professor of materials science and engineering, mechanical engineering and macromolecular science and engineering.This research was funded by the National Science Foundation (grant no. 1762657).Synchrotron-based x-ray nanotomography was performed at the National Synchrotron Light Source II at Brookhaven National Laboratory. Further characterization was done at the Michigan Center for Materials Characterization. &nbsp;&nbsp;

The lightweight material could extend EV range or fuel efficiency once its microstructure is understood.

First 3D visualization of an aluminum nanocomposite for the auto industry

The glass bottles we toss in the recycling bin don’t always end up where we expect. Only about 33% of glass is recycled in the United States,&nbsp;<a href="https://www.epa.gov/facts-and-figures-about-materials-waste-and-recycling/glass-material-specific-data#:~:text=EPA%20combined%20data%20from%20the,recycling%20rate%20of%2031.3%20percent." target="_blank">according to the Environmental Protection Agency</a>, partly due to expenses like sorting bottles by color. Penn State scientists recently found that mass-produced soda-lime silicate glass from post-consumer bottles of different colors can be safely melted together in the recycling process, which could potentially lead to more bottles being recycled.The team reported their findings in the&nbsp;<a href="https://ceramics.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ces2.10217" target="_blank">International Journal of Ceramic Engineering and Science</a>.“This work broadly addresses a widespread misconception that different colored glass bottles can’t all be recycled together,” said Katy Gerace, who conducted the research as a doctoral student in the Department of Materials Science and Engineering at Penn State. She graduated in 2023. “We have confirmed that you can melt all these post-consumer glass bottles together to create new, useful glass products.”Soda-lime silicate bottles, the most recycled type of glass, are turned into cullet — glass that has been crushed into small pieces, or grains – before being remelted. Cullet is most often sorted by color so that manufacturers can achieve specific color and clarity for their products. And the availability of pristine, color-sorted glass cullet limits how much recycled material is used in the manufacturing process, the researchers said.Small-scale manufacturers who are focused on recycling, and not on achieving a specific color bottle could utilize mixed-color cullet, keeping more glass bottles out of landfills and reducing energy costs associated with manufacturing glass, the scientists said.<iframe width="640" height="360" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/CwEixn1u7v8?&amp;wmode=opaque&amp;enablejsapi=1&amp;origin=https://www.wevolver.com" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="" class="fr-draggable" data-gtm-yt-inspected-23="true" data-lf-form-tracking-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-yt-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-vimeo-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true"></iframe>Katy Gerace, graduate student, in the Department of Materials Science and Engineering, shares her research in enabling improved glass recycling technology and modeling tools.&nbsp;Remelting glass cullet requires less energy than raw materials, which translates into less carbon dioxide produced during the melting process. For a 10% increase in recycled content, the scientists said, there is a 3% reduction in energy consumption.“We are exploring how to add value to waste,” said Gerace, who is now a research and development senior engineer at Vitro Architectural Glass. “We are trying to think of this not as waste but as something that potentially could have value.”The work stems from&nbsp;<a href="https://www.psu.edu/news/earth-and-mineral-sciences/story/grant-manufacturing-pa-initiative-improve-glass-recycling/" target="_blank">a partnership between Penn State and Remark Glass</a>, a Philadelphia-based company focused on innovative and creative glass recycling.“As a small business, they are really interested in trying to remove glass from the waste stream and keep it out of landfills,” said John Mauro, the Dorothy Pate Enright Professor of Materials Science and Engineering at Penn State and co-author of the study. “They use only post-consumer glass bottles and so they are very interested in understanding the chemical and material properties of the raw materials that come into their business. They wanted to know if there were any technical reasons for them to be concerned about what they’re doing.”Remark provided glass bottles for the study, and Gerace analyzed the samples for chemical composition and thermal properties to quantify variation across five major color families: clear, blue, amber, forest green and emerald green.In addition to demonstrating that post-consumer bottles of different colors and brands can be remelted without risk of material incompatibility, the researchers also presented various processing methods to control color homogeneity in glass produced exclusively from mixed color cullet from recycled glass bottles.Gerace said the particle size of the cullet and the temperature and time of the remelting process have the biggest impacts on color homogeneity.“You have to keep the glass melted for all the different ions to diffuse and move around to create a consistent color,” she said. “So, you can either really extend the time of the melt and hold it at a high temperature for a long time to wait for everything to kind of equilibrate or you can decrease the particle size of the cullet into more of like a fine powder. Then it becomes a little easier to get a nice consistent color.”This means, for example, that various shades of green bottles could be crushed into cullet and melted to produce a homogenous green glass. However, if a specific shade of green is required, then the bottles would be further separated.“Glass is one of the best materials to recycle, but when you actually go look at the process for how it’s done, it’s very non-trivial,” Gerace said. “And unfortunately, we lose a lot of what we put in our recycling bins to the landfill simply because we don’t have a good way of separating and sorting it. And that’s really unfortunate.”

Used glass bottles are crushed into small pieces called cullet before being remelted and remade. A new study found glass from post-consumer bottles of different colors can be safely melted together in the recycling process, which could potentially lead to more bottles being recycled Credit: Provided by Katy Gerace. All Rights Reserved.

Penn State scientists recently found that mass-produced soda-lime silicate glass from post-consumer bottles of different colors can be safely melted together in the recycling process, which could potentially lead to more bottles being recycled.

Message in a bottle: Combining mixed-color glass an option to boost recycling

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Researchers have created a new class of materials called “glassy gels” that are very hard and difficult to break despite containing more than 50% liquid. Coupled with the fact that glassy gels are simple to produce, the material holds promise for a variety of applications.Gels and glassy polymers are classes of materials that have historically been viewed as distinct from one another. Glassy polymers are hard, stiff and often brittle. They’re used to make things like water bottles or airplane windows. Gels – such as contact lenses – contain liquid and are soft and stretchy.“We’ve created a class of materials that we’ve termed glassy gels, which are as hard as glassy polymers, but – if you apply enough force – can stretch up to five times their original length, rather than breaking,” says Michael Dickey, corresponding author of a paper on the work and the Camille and Henry Dreyfus Professor of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering at North Carolina State University. “What’s more, once the material has been stretched, you can get it to return to its original shape by applying heat. In addition, the surface of the glassy gels is highly adhesive, which is unusual for hard materials.”“A key thing that distinguishes glassy gels is that they are more than 50% liquid, which makes them more efficient conductors of electricity than common plastics that have comparable physical characteristics,” says Meixiang Wang, co-lead author of the paper and a postdoctoral researcher at NC&nbsp;State.“Considering the number of unique properties they possess, we’re optimistic that these materials will be useful,” Wang says.Glassy gels, as the name suggests, are effectively a material that combines some of the most attractive properties of both glassy polymers and gels. To make them, the researchers start with the liquid precursors of glassy polymers and mix them with an ionic liquid. This combined liquid is poured into a mold and exposed to ultraviolet light, which “cures” the material. The mold is then removed, leaving behind the glassy gel.“The ionic liquid is a solvent, like water, but is made entirely of ions,” says Dickey. “Normally when you add a solvent to a polymer, the solvent pushes apart the polymer chains, making the polymer soft and stretchable. That’s why a wet contact lens is pliable, and a dry contact lens isn’t. In glassy gels, the solvent pushes the molecular chains in the polymer apart, which allows it to be stretchable like a gel. However, the ions in the solvent are strongly attracted to the polymer, which prevents the polymer chains from moving. The inability of chains to move is what makes it glassy. The end result is that the material is hard due to the attractive forces, but is still capable of stretching due to the extra spacing.”The researchers found that glassy gels could be made with a variety of different polymers and ionic liquids, though not all classes of polymers can be used to create glassy gels.“Polymers that are charged or polar hold promise for glassy gels, because they’re attracted to the ionic liquid,” Dickey says.In testing, the researchers found that the glassy gels don’t evaporate or dry out, even though they consist of 50-60% liquid.“Maybe the most intriguing characteristic of the glassy gels is how adhesive they are,” says Dickey. “Because while we understand what makes them hard and stretchable, we can only speculate about what makes them so sticky.”The researchers also think glassy gels hold promise for practical applications because they’re easy to make.“Creating glassy gels is a simple process that can be done by curing it in any type of mold or by 3D printing it,” says Dickey. “Most plastics with similar mechanical properties require manufacturers to create polymer as a feedstock and then transport that polymer to another facility where the polymer is melted and formed into the end product.“We’re excited to see how glassy gels can be used and are open to working with collaborators on identifying applications for these materials.”The paper, “<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07564-0" data-type="link" data-id="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07564-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Glassy Gels Toughened by Solvent</a>,” is published in the journal&nbsp;Nature. Co-lead author of the paper is Xun Xiao of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. The paper was co-authored by Salma Siddika, a Ph.D. student at NC&nbsp;State; Mohammad Shamsi, a former Ph.D. student at NC&nbsp;State; Ethan Frey, a former undergrad at NC state; Brendan O’Connor, a professor of mechanical and aerospace engineering at NC&nbsp;State; Wubin Bai, a professor of applied physical sciences at UNC; and Wen Qian, a research associate professor of mechanical and materials engineering at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln.A video explaining glassy gels, and demonstrating their properties, can be found at <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LV-vgxxbNeY" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LV-vgxxbNeY</a><iframe width="640" height="360" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/LV-vgxxbNeY?&amp;wmode=opaque&amp;rel=0&amp;enablejsapi=1&amp;origin=https://www.wevolver.com" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="" class="fr-draggable" data-lf-form-tracking-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-yt-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-vimeo-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true"></iframe> The work was partially supported by funding from the Coastal Studies Institute.

Researchers have created a new class of materials called “glassy gels” that are very hard and difficult to break despite containing more than 50% liquid. Coupled with the fact that glassy gels are simple to produce, the material holds promise for a variety of applications.

Researchers Create New Class of Materials Called 'Glassy Gels'

There are some things in life you can watch and then never unwatch,” said<a href="https://profiles.stanford.edu/manu-prakash" data-extlink="" target="_blank">&nbsp;Manu Prakash</a>, associate professor of bioengineering at Stanford University, calling up a video of his latest fascination, the single-cell organism Lacrymaria olor, a free-living protist he stumbled upon playing with his paper<a href="https://foldscope.com/" data-extlink="" target="_blank">&nbsp;Foldscope</a>.&nbsp;“It’s … just … it’s mesmerizing.”“From the minute Manu showed it to me, I have just been transfixed by this cell,” said Eliott Flaum, a graduate student in the “curiosity-driven”<a href="https://web.stanford.edu/group/prakash-lab/cgi-bin/labsite/" data-extlink="" target="_blank">&nbsp;Prakash Lab</a>. Prakash and Flaum spent the last seven years studying Lacrymaria olor’s&nbsp;every move and recently published<a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adk5511" data-extlink="" target="_blank">&nbsp;a paper</a> on their work in Science.“The first time I came back with a fluorescence micrograph, it was just breathtaking,” Flaum said. “That image is in the paper.”Beautiful and mesmerizing,&nbsp;L. olor is actually&nbsp;Science’s latest cover art.The video Prakash queued up reveals why this organism is much more than a pretty picture: a single teardrop-shaped cell swims in a droplet of pond water. In an instant, a long, thin “neck” projects out from the bulbous lower end. And it keeps going. And going. Then, just as quickly, the neck retracts back, as if nothing had happened.In seconds, a cell that was just 40 microns tip-to-tail sprouted a neck that extended 1500 microns or more out into the world. It is the equivalent of a 6-foot human projecting its head more than 200 feet. All from a cell without a nervous system.“It is incredibly complex behavior,” Prakash said with a smile.<iframe width="640" height="360" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/LZArEEBeMpI?&amp;wmode=opaque&amp;rel=0&amp;enablejsapi=1&amp;origin=https://www.wevolver.com" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="" class="fr-draggable" data-lf-form-tracking-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-yt-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-vimeo-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true"></iframe>Video courtesy of Prakash Lab/Andrew Myers<h2 id="isPasted">Form is function</h2>L. olor has landed on the cover of&nbsp;Science because Prakash and Flaum have discovered in this behavior a new geometric mechanism previously unknown in biology. And they are the first to explain how such a simple cell can produce such incredible morphodynamics, beautiful folding and unfolding – aka origami – at the scale of a single cell, time and again without fail.It is geometry.&nbsp;L. olor’s behavior is encoded in its cytoskeletal structure, just like human behavior is encoded in neural circuits. “This is the first example of cellular origami,” Prakash said. “We’re thinking of calling it lacrygami.”Specifically, it is a subset of traditional origami known as “curved-crease origami.” It is all based on a structure of thin, helical microtubules – ribs that wrap inside the cell’s membrane. These microtubule ribs are encased in a delicate diaphanous membrane, defining the crease pattern of peaks in a series of mountain-and-valley folds.Prakash and Flaum used transmission electron microscopy and other state-of-the-art investigatory techniques to show there are actually 15 of these stiff, helical microtubule ribbons enshrouding&nbsp;L. olor’s cell membrane – a cytoskeleton. These tubules coil and uncoil, leading to long projection and retraction, nesting back into themselves like the bellows of a compressed helical accordion. The gossamer of membrane tucks away inside the cell in neat, well-defined pleats.“When you store pleats on the helical angle in this way, you can store an&nbsp;infinite amount of material,” Flaum explained. “Biology has figured this out.”<h2>Geometry is destiny</h2>The elegance is in the arithmetic. It is mathematically impossible for this structure to unfold in any other way – and, conversely, only one way it can retract. What is perhaps more striking to Prakash is the robustness of the architecture. In its lifetime,&nbsp;L. olor will perform this projection and retraction 50,000 times without flaw, he said: “L. olor is&nbsp;bound by its geometry to fold and unfold in this particular way.”The key is an under-studied mathematical phenomenon occurring at the precise point where the ribs twist and the folded membrane begins to unfurl. It is a&nbsp;singularity – a point where the structure is folded and unfolded at the same time. It is both and neither – singular.Grabbing a piece of paper, Prakash folds it into a cone shape and then pulls on one corner of the paper to demonstrate how this singularity (called d-cone) travels across the sheet in a neat line. And, by pushing back on the corner how the singularity travels back the exact same path to its original position.“It unfolds and folds at this singularity every time, acting as a controller. This is the first time a geometric controller of behavior has been described in a living cell.” Prakash explained.<h2>Recreational biology</h2>A constant theme running throughout the<a href="https://web.stanford.edu/group/prakash-lab/cgi-bin/labsite/publications/" data-extlink="" target="_blank">&nbsp;Prakash Lab’s</a> work is a profound sense of wonder and playfulness that results in the energetic curiosity necessary to pursue such an idea for such a long time. It is, to put it in Prakash’s terms, old-school science. He also calls it recreational biology.To demonstrate his inspiration, Prakash displayed a family tree of other single-celled organisms that he has chosen to study. True, none can do what&nbsp;L. olor can do, he said. But these intricate geometries come in thousands of forms. Beautiful? Certainly, but each is also hiding wonderful and unwritten rules under their sleeves.“We started with a puzzle,” Prakash explained with all the seriousness a scientist can muster. “Ellie and I asked a very simple question: Where does this material come from? And where does it go? As our playground, we chose Tree of Life. Seven years later, here we are.”As for practical applications, Prakash the engineer is already imagining a new era of deployable microscale “living machines” that could transform everything from space telescopes to miniature surgical robots in the operating room.

A side-by-side comparison of Lacrymaria olor, a remarkable ciliate with its “neck” extended and retracted. Researchers discovered origami-like folds make this morphing possible where microtubules define folding pleats. | Prakash Lab

Combining a deep curiosity and “recreational biology,” Stanford researchers have discovered how a simple cell produces remarkably complex behavior, all without a nervous system. It’s origami, they say.

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MIT physicists and colleagues have created a five-lane superhighway for electrons that could allow ultra-efficient electronics and more.&nbsp;The work,&nbsp;<a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adk9749" target="_blank">reported in the May 10 issue of&nbsp;Science</a>, is one of several important discoveries by the same team over the past year involving a material that is a unique form of&nbsp;<a href="https://news.mit.edu/topic/graphene" target="_blank">graphene</a>.“This discovery has direct implications for low-power electronic devices because no energy is lost during the propagation of electrons, which is not the case in regular materials where the electrons are scattered,” says Long Ju, an assistant professor in the Department of Physics and corresponding author of the&nbsp;Science paper.The phenomenon is akin to cars traveling down an open turnpike as opposed to those moving through neighborhoods. The neighborhood cars can be stopped or slowed by other drivers making abrupt stops or U-turns that disrupt an otherwise smooth commute.<h2>A new material</h2>The material behind this work, known as rhombohedral pentalayer graphene, was discovered two years ago by physicists led by Ju. “We found a goldmine, and every scoop is revealing something new,” says Ju, who is also affiliated with MIT’s Materials Research Laboratory.In a&nbsp;Nature Nanotechnology paper last October, Ju and colleagues&nbsp;<a href="https://news.mit.edu/2023/mit-physicists-turn-pencil-lead-into-gold-1114" target="_blank">reported the discovery</a> of three important properties arising from rhombohedral graphene. For example, they showed that it could be topological, or allow the unimpeded movement of electrons around the edge of the material but not through the middle. That resulted in a superhighway, but required the application of a large magnetic field some tens of thousands times stronger than the Earth’s magnetic field.In the current work, the team reports creating the superhighway without any magnetic field.Tonghang Han, an MIT graduate student in physics, is a co-first author of the paper. “We are not the first to discover this general phenomenon, but we did so in a very different system. And compared to previous systems, ours is simpler and also supports more electron channels.” Explains Ju, “other materials can only support one lane of traffic on the edge of the material. We suddenly bumped it up to five.”Additional co-first authors of the paper who contributed equally to the work are Zhengguang Lu and Yuxuan Yao. Lu is a postdoc in the Materials Research Laboratory. Yao conducted the work as a visiting undergraduate student from Tsinghua University. Other authors are MIT professor of physics Liang Fu;&nbsp;Jixiang Yang and Junseok Seo, both MIT graduate students in physics; Chiho Yoon and Fan Zhang of the University of Texas at Dallas; and Kenji Watanabe and Takashi Taniguchi of the National Institute for Materials Science in Japan.<h2>How it works</h2>Graphite, the primary component of pencil lead, is composed of many layers of graphene, a single layer of carbon atoms arranged in hexagons resembling a honeycomb structure. Rhombohedral graphene is composed of five layers of graphene stacked in a specific overlapping order.Ju and colleagues isolated rhombohedral graphene thanks to a&nbsp;<a href="https://news.mit.edu/2021/custom-made-s-snom-probes-materials-nanoscale-0713" target="_blank">novel microscope</a> Ju built at MIT in 2021 that&nbsp;can quickly and relatively inexpensively determine a variety of important characteristics of a material at the nanoscale. Pentalayer rhombohedral stacked graphene is only a few billionths of a meter thick.In the current work, the team tinkered with the original system, adding a layer of tungsten disulfide (WS2). “The interaction between the WS2&nbsp;and the pentalayer rhombohedral graphene resulted in this five-lane superhighway that operates at zero magnetic field,” says Ju.<h2>Comparison to superconductivity</h2>The phenomenon that the Ju group discovered in rhombohedral graphene that allows electrons to travel with no resistance at zero magnetic field is known as the quantum anomalous Hall effect. Most people are more familiar with superconductivity, a completely different phenomenon that does the same thing but happens in very different materials.Ju notes that although superconductors were discovered in the 1910s, it took some 100 years of research to coax the system to work at the higher temperatures necessary for applications. “And the world record is still well below room temperature,” he notes.Similarly, the rhombohedral graphene superhighway currently operates at about 2 kelvins, or -456 degrees Fahrenheit. “It will take a lot of effort to elevate the temperature, but as physicists, our job is to provide the insight; a different way for realizing this [phenomenon],” Ju says.<h2>Very exciting</h2>The discoveries involving rhombohedral graphene came as a result of painstaking research that wasn’t guaranteed to work. “We tried many recipes over many months,” says Han, “so it was very exciting when we cooled the system to a very low temperature and [a five-lane superhighway operating at zero magnetic field] just popped out.”Says Ju, “it’s very exciting to be the first to discover a phenomenon in a new system, especially in a material that we uncovered.”This work was supported by a Sloan Fellowship; the U.S. National Science Foundation; the U.S. Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Research and Engineering; the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science KAKENHI; and the World Premier International Research Initiative of Japan.

Artist’s rendition of a newly discovered superhighway for electrons that can occur in rhombohedral graphene. “We found a goldmine, and every scoop is revealing something new,” says MIT Assistant Professor Long Ju. Image: Sampson Wilcox/Research Laboratory of Electronics

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