Plasma cleaning is a high-tech surface treatment that uses ionized gas to remove microscopic contaminants, enhancing adhesion and durability in materials. This article explains plasma cleaning’s role across industries, its eco-friendly benefits, and emerging trends in sustainable manufacturing.

Plasma Cleaning: Cutting-Edge Innovations, Core Principles, and Real-World Applications

Power surges can be more destructive than outages and cause significant damage to electrical devices and systems, regardless of their origin or cause. This could be disastrous for your business, resulting in huge losses. Any commercial enterprise that depends on motors, high-voltage machinery, security systems, or modern electronics and equipment is at risk. Some of the most vulnerable equipment includes:<ul><li dir="ltr">Manufacturing machinery</li><li dir="ltr">Security systems and fire alarms</li><li dir="ltr">Elevators and escalators</li><li dir="ltr">Telecommunications equipment</li><li dir="ltr">Computers, printers and other electronics</li><li dir="ltr">Retail POS systems</li></ul>Fortunately, commercial surge protection provides a solution for this problem. So let’s look at how to use it and what surge protection options are available.<h2 dir="ltr">What Causes A Power Surge?</h2>Electrical power is supplied to your premises at a designated flow rate, but sometimes, there’ll be a spike in the supply. This causes the voltage to increase temporarily in a surge of excess power. This might happen for several reasons, including:<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1728910925806-1728910925806.png" alt="Electrical Surge" class="fr-fic fr-dii"><ul><li dir="ltr">momentary power outages/circuit overload</li><li dir="ltr">exposed or damaged wiring</li><li dir="ltr">lightning or other external factors&nbsp;</li></ul><h3 dir="ltr">Momentary Power Outages/Circuit Overload</h3>Short-term power outages sometimes occur as a result of electrical overload, which momentarily&nbsp;<a title="Trips The Circuit" href="https://www.rowse.co.uk/blog/post/what-causes-circuit-breakers-to-trip" target="_blank" rel="nofollow noopener">trips the circuit</a>. This might happen in premises with multiple high-demand devices like air-conditioners or lifts that are all simultaneously in use. Frequent sudden spikes in electrical demand will sometimes result in a voltage surge that can cause considerable damage.&nbsp;<h3 dir="ltr">Exposed Or Damaged Wiring&nbsp;</h3>This isn’t only dangerous but can lead to frequent internal power surges. If you notice a burning smell or warm outlets in your electronic devices, switches or sockets, you must fix them immediately. If you don’t, you run the risk of short-circuiting, shocks, fires or burns.<h3 dir="ltr">Lightning Or Other External Factors</h3>Lightning can cause a power surge so great that it creates blackouts, outages and even fires. It can destroy your electronic equipment and any machinery plugged into the mains. Similar damage may result from other weather conditions like snowstorms, thunderstorms and extreme temperatures. Even animals and falling trees can cause electrical surges if they hit the power lines or chew on cables. This may lead to exposed and damaged wiring, with similar results.<h2 dir="ltr">Why Is Commercial Surge Protection So Important?&nbsp;</h2>Not every power surge will wreak this much havoc. Voltage in most commercial premises typically fluctuates every day. Every time you switch on any electrical equipment, there’ll be a brief power spike. It may only last for a millisecond or two, which isn’t particularly significant. But over time, these spikes can have a cumulative effect that weakens your electrical equipment and may eventually damage it.If the incoming voltage exceeds an acceptable level, a typical surge protector diverts the excess current through the electrical outlets into whatever devices are plugged in. It is thus safely dispersed into the outlets’ grounding wires.&nbsp;&nbsp;You can get a variety of surge protection devices, ranging from small domestic versions to large-scale industrial types. All your electrical equipment should be plugged into the surge protector rather than directly into the electrical outlet.In default of surge protection, best practice dictates always unplugging any electrical or electronic devices not in use, as surges can affect a connected device even if it’s switched off. Regular maintenance is also necessary to fix minor issues with your electrical systems and wiring and ensure they’re safe under the requirements of&nbsp;<a title="Electricity At Work Act" href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/1989/635/contents" target="_blank" rel="nofollow noopener">The Electricity at Work Act 1989</a>.&nbsp;<h2 dir="ltr">Why It’s A Good Idea To Invest In Commercial Surge Protectors</h2>The most obvious reason to invest in commercial surge protectors is that they safeguard your facility and equipment from damage. By regulating the flow of electricity, you prevent circuits from malfunctioning and fuses blowing. Your electronic devices and manufacturing equipment will be safe from electrical overload and your business operations will continue to run without interruption, preventing costly downtime.You’ll also be complying with the statutory requirements of&nbsp;<a title="BS" href="https://knowledge.bsigroup.com/products/requirements-for-electrical-installations-iet-wiring-regulations-3?version=standard" target="_blank" rel="nofollow noopener">BS 7671:2018</a>, the IET wiring regulations that apply to protection against transient over-voltages. You won’t need surge protection for small electrical items like desk lamps, but it’s essential for protecting industrial equipment and electronic devices with delicate microprocessors.&nbsp;<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1728910925709-1728910925709.png" alt="Power Plant" class="fr-fic fr-dii"><h3 dir="ltr">Commercial Surge Protector Types&nbsp;</h3>There are three main types of commercial surge protectors available:Type 1 acts as a buffer between the electrical grid and your power distribution panel. It helps to regulate the mains power and mitigates the effects of any transients before they get into your system. Type 1 is often high-capacity and designed to withstand external factors like a partial lightning current.Type 2 is installed adjacent to your main units and helps reduce both internal and external power surges. They can handle both large and small surges and are good for protecting sensitive equipment.Type 3 is one of the most common types, but is designed for managing medium surges only. Protection for sensitive equipment is small-scale and local, so this type should only be used to supplement Type 2.<h2 dir="ltr">Choosing The Best Commercial Surge Protection</h2>You’ll find all shapes, sizes, types and costs of commercial surge protection, so you need to consider several factors when choosing the best for your requirements.<ul><li dir="ltr">Where is your equipment located?</li><li dir="ltr">How sensitive is it?</li><li dir="ltr">What level of exposure does your installation have?</li><li dir="ltr">Is your property exposed to lightning transients?</li></ul>You’ll also need to take into account the surge protector’s joule rating, clamping voltage, response time and whether it has indicator lights to show you that it’s working properly. It should have a UL rating of its safety and a transient voltage surge suppressor. As a general rule, anything electric and expensive needs a surge protector.&nbsp;

We rely so heavily on electricity these days that it’s critical to address potential problems in the supply chain. Domestically, commercially and in industry, this applies not only to power cuts, but also to equally disruptive spikes or surges.

Why Is Commercial Surge Protection Important?

Photovoltaics are set to meet over 40 percent of Switzerland’s electricity needs by 2050. But solar power isn’t always available when it’s needed: there’s too much of it in summer and too little in winter, when the sun shines less often and heat pumps are running at full tilt. According to the Swiss federal government’s Energy Strategy, Switzerland wants to close the winter electricity gap with a combination of imports, wind and hydropower as well as alpine solar plants and gas-fired power plants.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1725320869826-image.imageformat.carousel.940179852.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">ETH researchers Samuel Heiniger (left, with a jar of iron ore) and Professor Wendelin Stark in front of the three iron reactors on ETH Zurich’s Hönggerberg campus. (Image: ETH Zurich)One way to minimise the need for imports and gas-fired power plants in winter is to produce hydrogen from cheap solar power in summer, which could then be converted into electricity in winter. However, hydrogen is highly flammable, extremely volatile and makes many materials brittle. Storing the gas from summer until winter calls for special pressurised containers and cooling technology. These require a lot of energy, while the many safety precautions that must be followed make building such storage facilities very expensive. What’s more, hydrogen tanks are never completely leak-proof, which harms the environment and adds to the costs.Now researchers at ETH Zurich led by Wendelin Stark, Professor of Functional Materials at the Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, have developed a new technology for the seasonal storage of hydrogen that is much safer and cheaper than existing solutions. The researchers are using a well-known technology and the fourth most abundant element on Earth: iron.<h2>Chemical storage</h2>To store hydrogen better, Stark and his team are relying on the steam-iron process, which has been understood since the 19th century. If there is a surplus of solar power available in the summer months, it can be used to split water to produce hydrogen. This hydrogen is then fed into a stainless steel reactor filled with natural iron ore at 400 degrees Celsius. There, the hydrogen extracts the oxygen from the iron ore – which in chemical terms is simply iron oxide – resulting in elemental iron and water.“This chemical process is similar to charging a battery. &nbsp;It means that the energy in the hydrogen can be stored as iron and water for long periods with almost no losses,” Stark says. When the energy is needed again in winter, the researchers reverse the process: they feed hot steam into the reactor to turn the iron and water back into iron oxide and hydrogen. The hydrogen can then be converted into electricity or heat in a gas turbine or fuel cell. To keep the energy required for the discharging process to a minimum, the steam is generated using waste heat from the discharging reaction.<a target="_blank"></a><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1725320890968-image.imageformat.1286.408338324.png" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">The charging and discharging process for the storage technology. (Visualisations: ETH Zurich)<h2 id="isPasted">Cheap iron ore meets expensive hydrogen</h2>“The big advantage of this technology is that the raw material, iron ore, is easy to procure in large quantities. Plus it doesn’t even need processing before we put it in the reactor,” Stark says. Moreover, the researchers assume that large iron ore storage facilities could be built worldwide without substantially influencing the global market price of iron.The reactor in which the reaction takes place doesn’t have to fulfil any special safety requirements either. It consists of stainless steel walls just 6 millimetres thick. The reaction takes place at normal pressure and the storage capacity increases with each cycle. Once filled with iron oxide, the reactor can be reused for any number of storage cycles without having to replace its contents. Another advantage of the technology is that the researchers can easily expand the storage capacity. It’s simply a case of building bigger reactors and filling them with more iron ore. All these advantages make this storage technology an estimated ten times cheaper than existing methods.However, there’s also a downside to using hydrogen: its production and conversion are inefficient compared to other sources of energy, as up to 60 percent of its energy is lost in the process. This means that as a storage medium, hydrogen is most attractive when sufficient wind or solar power is available and other options are off the table. That is especially the case with industrial processes that can’t be electrified.<h2>Pilot plant on the Hönggerberg campus</h2>The researchers have demonstrated the technical feasibility of their storage technology using a pilot plant on the Hönggerberg campus. This consists of three stainless steel reactors with a capacity of 1.4 cubic metres, each of which the researchers have filled with 2–3 tonnes of untreated iron ore available on the market.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1725320913294-image.imageformat.1286.858633795.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">This 1.4-cubic-metre stainless steel reactor at the Hönggerberg campus holds 2–3 tonnes of untreated iron ore. (Image: ETH Zurich)“The pilot plant can store around 10 megawatt hours of hydrogen over long periods. Depending on how you convert the hydrogen into electricity, that’ll give you somewhere between 4 and 6 megawatt hours of power,” explains Samuel Heiniger, a doctoral student in Stark’s research group. This corresponds to the electricity demand from three to five Swiss single-family homes in the winter months. At present, the system is still running on electricity from the grid and not on the solar power generated on the Hönggerberg campus.This is soon set to change: the researchers want to expand the system such that by 2026, the ETH Hönggerberg campus can meet one-fifth of its winter electricity requirements using its own solar power from the summer. This would require reactors with a volume of 2,000 cubic metres, which could store around 4 gigawatt hours (GWh) of green hydrogen. Once converted into electricity, the stored hydrogen would supply around 2 GWh of power. “This plant could replace a small reservoir in the Alps as a seasonal energy storage facility. To put that in perspective, it equates to around one-tenth of the capacity of the Nant de Drance pumped storage power plant,” Stark says. In addition, the discharging process would generate 2 GWh of heat, which the researchers want to integrate into the campus’s heating system.<h2 id="isPasted">Good scalability</h2>But could this technology be harnessed to provide seasonal energy storage for Switzerland as a whole? The researchers have made some initial calculations: providing Switzerland with around 10 terawatt hours (TWh) of electricity from seasonal hydrogen storage systems every year in the future – which would admittedly be a lot – would require some 15–20 TWh of green hydrogen and roughly 10,000,000 cubic metres of iron ore. “That’s about 2 percent of what Australia, the largest producer of iron ore, mines every year,” Stark says. By way of comparison, in its <a target="_blank">Energy Perspectives 2050+</a>, the Swiss Federal Office of Energy anticipates total electricity consumption of around 84 TWh in 2050.If reactors were built that could store around 1 GWh of electricity each, they would have a volume of roughly 1,000 cubic metres. This calls for around 100 square metres of building land. Switzerland would have to build some 10,000 of these storage systems to obtain 10 TWh of electricity in winter, which corresponds to an area of around 1 square metre per inhabitant.<hr><h2 id="isPasted">Coalition for Green Energy and Storage (CGES)</h2>This project is part of the <a href="https://ethz.ch/en/news-and-events/eth-news/news/2023/06/eth-zurich-and-epfl-launch-a-green-energy-coalition.html" target="_blank">Coalition for Green Energy and Storage</a>, which ETH Zurich launched in 2023 together with EPFL, PSI and Empa and is driving forward together with industrial partners - including major Swiss energy suppliers and authorities. The coalition has set itself the goal of rapidly bringing innovative technologies for the production and storage of carbon-neutral gases and fuels and for CO2 capture to market maturity. As part of CGES, larger pilot plants (‘catapults’) are to be built to test these technologies and make important contributions to the climate-neutral transformation of the energy system and security of supply. The next step will be to establish an association that will network interested stakeholders, provide them with scientific support and guidance and facilitate the implementation of projects.<h2 id="isPasted">Reference</h2>Literature: Heiniger, SP; Fan Z; Lustenberger UB, Stark WJ: Safe seasonal energy and hydrogen storage in a 1 : 10 single-household-sized pilot reactor based on the steam-iron process. Sustainable Energy &amp; Fuels 2024, 8 (1), 125-132. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1039/D3SE01228J" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1039/D3SE01228J</a>

Researchers at ETH Zurich are using iron to store hydrogen safely and for long periods. In the future, this technology could be used for seasonal energy storage.

Iron as an inexpensive storage medium for hydrogen

The effective utilization of renewable energies such as solar and wind power is an essential element to achieve carbon neutrality. According to the <a href="https://kpmg.com/xx/en/home/insights/2023/06/statistical-review-of-world-energy-2023.html" target="_blank">Statistical Review of World Energy 2023</a> report published by the Energy Institute in the U.K., renewable energies including hydropower already account for approximately 30% of the world's power supplies. The total amount of that renewable energy is 8,539 TWh. This means it has grown more than four times the 2,058 TWh that it was in 1985.When it comes to ways to fully utilize renewable energy, many people may think of large-scale power generation in places brimming with natural energy. Examples of that include solar power generation in vast places like deserts or grasslands and wind power generation on the sea. However, there are forms of renewable energy even in the middle of any big city. In fact, efforts are being proactively promoted to introduce power generation with renewable energy in urban areas. In Japan, for instance, solar panels are being installed on the rooftops of buildings and the roofs of houses. The amount of power these solar panels generate is small. This means they are being positioned as auxiliary power supplies. Nevertheless, they are being effectively utilized. Moreover, new efforts are underway to also develop and introduce solar power generation technologies on the walls and in the windows of buildings and technologies that generate power using the vibrations that come from people walking.Looking at the situation from a global perspective, many small and medium-sized cities are striving to achieve local production for local consumption in which the power consumed locally is supplied by utilizing wind power, solar power, hydropower, and other forms of renewable energy in that locality. Furthermore, an increasing number of companies are also participating in RE100. RE100 is an international initiative the aim of which is for companies to supply the power they use in their businesses with 100% renewable energy. These companies are proactively introducing power generation equipment into their factories and other facilities to generate as much power as possible on their own (Fig. 1).<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1725259865043-microgrid-img0001.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Fig. 1: An increasing number of companies are participating in RE100 and promoting power generation on their own with renewable energy (Left: Kanazu Murata Manufacturing Clean Energy Park / Right: Carport solar panels capable of dealing with fallen snow)<h2 id="isPasted">Microgrids: Supporting the Local Production for Local Consumption of Renewable Energy</h2>We can call efforts to achieve local production for local consumption by converting renewable energy into power an extremely effective means of utilizing energy. This is because it is possible to minimize the power loss that always occurs in power systems during the transmission and distribution of that power.Large-scale power plants are located far from cities where a large amount of power is consumed in current power systems. The power generated in those power plants is transmitted and distributed to the areas where it is consumed to be utilized in daily life and socio-economic activities. However, approximately 30% of the power generated in the power plants is wastefully lost in the process up to its use via the power transmission and distribution network (also known as the grid). This is because a large amount of power is dissipated as heat or electromagnetic waves due to power lines and power converter loads. The shorter the distance of power transmission and distribution, the fewer times the power is converted, making it possible to reduce power loss. Therefore, we can minimize the occurrence of power loss by achieving local production for local consumption using the natural energy all around us as a distributed power supply.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1725259887421-microgrid-img0002_en.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Fig. 2: Microgrid configuration and method of usage during normal times and emergenciesSource: <a href="https://www.meti.go.jp/shingikai/energy_environment/energy_resource/pdf/015_s01_00.pdf" target="_blank" data-lf-fd-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true">Materials from the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry's (a Japanese administrative agency) 4th Information Liaison Committee on the Introduction of Sustainable Renewable Energy in Local Communities</a>*This linked page is in Japanese.A small-scale power network aiming to achieve local production for local consumption of power is called a microgrid (Fig. 2). In addition to effectively utilizing renewable energy, microgrids have other benefits, as they are distributed power systems. For example, microgrids are capable of stably supplying power to communities even in the event of a large-scale power outage during an emergency such as a disaster. This allows us to maintain our daily life and business activities.<h2>Major Prerequisite of Operating Power Systems: Balancing Principle</h2>The concept of microgrids is simple. However, realizing microgrids is not that easy. This is because there is a major principle to the building and operating of power systems called the "balancing principle."The balancing principle is the rule that the amount of power supplied from a power plant must always match the amount of demand for power no matter what the power system. If we operate a power system in violation of this principle, the voltage of the power will become unstable and the equipment may fail, leading to a large-scale power outage.However, power derived from renewable energy like solar power is produced from unstable natural phenomena. Accordingly, we cannot conveniently adjust the amount of power generated. Therefore, it is difficult to supply the power we use and to fully use it with only power generated in the community. This means it is necessary to employ a mechanism that accommodates for surpluses and deficiencies with advanced operation and management like the fine adjustment of the balance in supply and demand in the community or the utilization of a large energy storage system (ESS).<h2>Smart Grids: Major Prerequisite for the Realization of Microgrids</h2>The means to solving this issue is a very similar concept to the microgrid called a "smart grid." A smart grid is a mechanism that automatically controls the necessary power so it can be supplied without surpluses or deficiencies by utilizing smart meters and other telecommunications devices to visualize in real time power demand in each individual household, business establishment, or other facility.Microgrids and smart grids are different concepts. Nevertheless, it is difficult to realize a microgrid that achieves local production for local consumption of power efficiently and effectively without introducing a smart grid mechanism. Smart grids grasp in real time and in detail the amount of power generated in distributed renewable energy power generation facilities and the amount of power consumed in daily life and business to achieve a balance between both while managing the charging and discharging of multiple distributed ESSs. If there is a deficiency in the power generated with just the charging and discharging permissible values of the installed ESSs, smart grids procure and release power from the wider grid to preserve the balance.The technology that uses IoT technology to control the amount of power supplied as if the multiple pieces of power generation equipment and ESSs in a microgrid were one power plant is called a "virtual power plant (VPP)." Meanwhile, smart meters are used to grasp in real time the power consumption situation in households and business establishments. Looking at the situation globally, smart meters are rapidly spreading. Smart meters began to be installed in households in 2014 in the greater Tokyo Metropolitan area in Japan. Installation was completed in almost all households and business establishments by the end of FY2020. The installation of smart meters across Japan is scheduled to be completed by the end of FY2024. In other words, we can say that the groundwork to promote the building of microgrids is steadily being laid.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1725259914808-microgrid-img0003.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Fig. 3: The spread of smart meters is a major prerequisite to smart grids and microgrids<h2 id="isPasted">DC Power Transmission and Distribution Systems Aiming for Further Improvements in Efficiency</h2>Attempts are also being advanced to further raise the energy utilization rate with microgrids. Currently, technological development is underway to introduce a new power transmission and distribution network called a "DC microgrid." This DC microgrid will transmit and distribute DC power instead of the AC power used for commercial power supplies.DC power supplies such as solar batteries and storage batteries are often used on the power supply side of microgrids. On the other hand, looking at the power consumption side, telecommunications devices made using semiconductors and electronic components and energy-saving electronic goods made using inverters operate on DC power. This means both sides handle DC power.Currently, however, AC power is being transmitted and distributed, so it is necessary to convert the power both when it is transmitted and when it is used. Power loss occurs at that time. DC microgrids are a technology aiming to minimize this waste. It is envisioned that DC buses of about 400 V will be laid in place of conventional AC 200 V / 100 V power lines and that high-voltage commercial grids will operate by being connected via a bidirectional AC/DC converter. In addition to microgrids, DC power transmission systems are being used to transmit power over long distances. There are already examples of this technology being put to practical use in Europe and America.The building and operation of microgrids will no doubt progress at the same time as there is an expansion in the usage settings of renewable energy. It is expected that demand will further increase for even more highly efficient and flexible microgrids that can handle various usage settings and the electronic components that support the building of those microgrids.<hr><h2 id="isPasted">Other Links</h2><ul><li><a href="https://corporate.murata.com/en-eu/csr/environment_murata/climate_change?intcid1=mar_art_xxx_tao_xxx_tao-link" target="_blank">Reinforcement of climate change countermeasures</a></li><li><a href="https://www.murata.com/en-eu/apps/industry/smartgrid/smartmeter?intcid1=mar_art_xxx_tao_xxx_tao-link" target="_blank">"Smart meter" application guide</a></li></ul>

Supporting the Transition away from Fossil Fuels with the Power of Electronic Components

Microgrids: Promoting Local Production for Local Consumption of Renewable Energy

Dr. Lena Reinke |&nbsp;<a target="_blank" href="mailto:lena.reinke@panacol.de" rel="noopener" data-hook="WebLink" id="isPasted">lena.reinke@panacol.de</a>Perovskite-based (PSC) and organic photovoltaic (OPV) cells represent a promising frontier in renewable energy generation technologies due to their potential for lightweight, flexible and potentially cost-effective solar power generation. However one of the critical challenges in the commercialization and long-term reliability of OPV cells is their encapsulation. Effective encapsulation protects the delicate photoactive materials from environmental factors such as moisture, oxygen and mechanical stress. Adhesives play a crucial role in this encapsulation process, offering not only mechanical stability but also environmental protection. This article focuses on the various types of adhesives used in the encapsulation of OPV or PSC cells.<div contenteditable="false"><hr></div><h3>We are exhibiting!</h3><a rel="noopener noreferrer" href="https://www.techblick.com/electronicsreshaped" target="_blank">Visit our booth at the flagship TechBlick event in Berlin on 23-24 October 2024.</a> Let's RESHAPE the Future of Electronics together, making it Additive, Sustainable, Flexible, Hybrid, &nbsp;Wearable, Structural, and 3D.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzIyNjAxNTYyMTIzLVBhbmFjb2wtRWxvc29sLUJvb3RoKEJlcmxpbjIwMjQpLmpwZyIsImVkaXRzIjp7InJlc2l6ZSI6eyJ3aWR0aCI6OTUwLCJmaXQiOiJjb3ZlciJ9fX0=" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"><h3 id="isPasted">Encapsulation adhesives for OPV or PSC cells must meet several stringent criteria:</h3><ol><li>Moisture and Oxygen Barrier:&nbsp;As the active materials are sensitive towards humidity and/or oxygen, the adhesive should therefore provide good barrier properties to prevent a degradation caused by moisture or oxygen ingress. The adhesive barrier properties can be tuned using to different strategies. One can either use quite hydrophobic raw materials to chemically prevent the ingress of water molecules or the cross-linking properties of some multifunctional components can build up a dense polymer network after curing so that the water ingress is blocked mechanically.</li><li>UV stability: The adhesive should also withstand prolonged exposure to sunlight without turning yellowish or getting brittle. This is especially important for PV applications that will be used outside.</li><li>Adhesion strength: It is important to ensure the mechanical integrity of the devices. Therefore, the adhesive needs to firmly bond the encapsulant material to the PV cell layers. Within initial tests, we check the adhesive performance by conducting T-Peel tests. Often it is very helpful to use a pretreatment technology such as corona or plasma to ensure sufficient surface energy and thus an enhanced T-Peel strength.</li><li>Compatibility: While sufficient adhesion strength is crucial, we also need to address the compatibility between the adhesive and the active layers. While an effective binding towards plastic substrates can often be provided by using monomeric raw materials, those can be quite harmful for the sensitive photoactive materials especially if a pronounced polarity is present. To overcome this issue, chemists need to balance out the ratio between oligomeric and monomeric compounds.</li></ol><hr>We are speaking!<a rel="noopener noreferrer" href="https://www.techblick.com/electronicsreshaped" target="_blank">Join us at the flagship TechBlick event in Berlin on 23-24 October 2024.</a> Let's RESHAPE the Future of Electronics together, making it Additive, Sustainable, Flexible, Hybrid, &nbsp;Wearable, Structural, and 3D.&nbsp;<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzIyNjAxNjEzMjEwLVBhbmFjb2wtU3BlYWtlciBDYXJkcyAoQkVSTElOLU9jdC0yMDI0KS5qcGciLCJlZGl0cyI6eyJyZXNpemUiOnsid2lkdGgiOjk1MCwiZml0IjoiY292ZXIifX19" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">For the encapsulation process, there are several types of adhesives that can be interesting. Epoxy-based formulations are widely used as they typically bring chemical resistance and thermal stability. This is due to the durable bonds that are formed during the polymerization process and accompanied by significantly improved barrier properties.Acrylic-type adhesives are also commonly used, especially if it comes to more challenging substrates as for example PET. Here, the required flexibility can be achieved more easily as for the usually more rigid epoxies. An additional advantage for acrylic-based adhesives is the typically faster polymerization. As time often is a critical criteria the curing speed should always be taken into consideration. In Table 1 a qualitative comparison between the two adhesive groups is listed.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzIyNjAxNjM1MTA3LVRhYmxlIDEgLSBRdWFsaXRhdGl2ZSBjb21wYXJpc29uIG9mIHRoZSBtYWluIGZlYXR1cmVzIG9mIGVwb3h5LSBhbmQgYWNyeWxhdGUtYmFzZWQgYWRoZXNpdmVzLi5wbmciLCJlZGl0cyI6eyJyZXNpemUiOnsid2lkdGgiOjk1MCwiZml0IjoiY292ZXIifX19" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Table 1 &nbsp; &nbsp;Qualitative comparison of the main features of epoxy- and acrylate-based adhesives.It is obvious that for both adhesive types there are advantages and drawbacks. This is caused by the adhesive’s properties influencing each other. The best example is that the barrier properties of a flexible acrylate-based adhesive are often worse in comparison to a highly crosslinked material. On the other hand, the flexibility of an adhesive also strongly influences the adhesion properties on flexible substrates positively. Therefore, it is required to balance out the adhesive’s flexibility and barrier properties.Another interesting binding task for adhesives is the contacting of the PV cells. To address this topic, it is possible to use electrically conductive adhesives. Those adhesives typically have the drawback that a deep frozen storage and delivery is required as the metal particles tend to settle down. As the particles block UV light, a photoinduced curing is also not possible often resulting in a slow curing speed and high temperatures that are required for curing. With Elecolit 3648, Panacol has developed an adhesive that can be cured under relatively mild conditions (see table 2). The comparatively low viscosity of about 10.000 – 15.000 mPas (at shear rate 10, 25 °C) allows it to be dispensed easily.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzIyNjAxNjc1OTg2LVRhYmxlIDIgLSBQb3NzaWJsZSBjdXJpbmcgcGFyYW1ldGVycyBmb3IgRWxlY29saXQgMzY0OC4ucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Table 2 &nbsp; &nbsp;Possible curing parameters for Elecolit 3648. The previously mentioned adhesive properties are complemented by the adhesives' impressive flexibility which allows Elecolit 3648 to be used within flexible PV devices. <h3>Join us at the flagship <a href="https://www.techblick.com/electronicsreshaped" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">TechBlick event in Berlin on 23-24 October 2024.</a></h3>Let's RESHAPE the Future of Electronics together, making it Additive, Sustainable, Flexible, Hybrid, &nbsp;Wearable, Structural, and 3D.&nbsp;<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzIyNjAxNzQwODgyLUJlcmxpbiAyMDI0LUFnZW5kYS5qcGciLCJlZGl0cyI6eyJyZXNpemUiOnsid2lkdGgiOjk1MCwiZml0IjoiY292ZXIifX19" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"><h3 id="isPasted">Save the Date! <a href="https://www.techblick.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">The Future of Electronics RESHAPED 2025 | USA | Europe</a></h3><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzIyNjAxNzYxMzM5LVNlZS15b3UtbmV4dC15ZWFyICgxOTIweDEwODApLmpwZyIsImVkaXRzIjp7InJlc2l6ZSI6eyJ3aWR0aCI6OTUwLCJmaXQiOiJjb3ZlciJ9fX0=" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">

Perovskite-based (PSC) and organic photovoltaic (OPV) cells are promising solar technologies. Adhesives play a crucial role offering not only mechanical stability but also environmental protection. This article focuses on the various types of adhesives used in the encapsulation of OPV or PSC cells.

Adhesive Solutions for Perovskite-based and Organic Photovoltaic Applications

Connectors are an integral part of advanced and modern electronic systems; however, many factors can influence their performance and hinder their applications. For instance, Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) and Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) can cause malfunctions, data loss, and even equipment failure. Similarly, harsh conditions like mechanical stresses, vibrations, and exposure to moisture and dust can also be devastating for these systems.&nbsp;This article discusses how Amphenol Sine Systems ecomate® Rugged Metal (RM) Shielded Connectors are ideal for dealing with all these challenges by providing suitable solutions for engineers looking to enhance the performance and reliability of their projects, and it also explores the array of features, applications, and benefits of these shielded connectors.<h1>Introduction to the Product</h1>Amphenol Sine Systems is globally renowned for its interconnect solutions. Their interconnect solutions are suitable for various sectors, including factory automation, industrial, heavy equipment, heavy-duty, transportation, and entertainment/lighting markets.&nbsp;Amphenol Sine Systems offers the ecomate® Rugged Metal series of circular connectors specifically designed for engineers requiring a robust and reliable solution in harsh environments. The ecomate® RM series is ideal for applications demanding durability due to its rugged design, which helps them endure harsh mechanical stresses, physical impacts, vibrations, and extreme temperatures, as well as provides unique shielding capabilities in both indoor and outdoor settings.&nbsp;<img width="777" src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzIyNTkzNDUwNzM4LTE3MjI1OTM0NTA3MzguanBlZyIsImVkaXRzIjp7InJlc2l6ZSI6eyJ3aWR0aCI6OTUwLCJmaXQiOiJjb3ZlciJ9fX0=" class="fr-fic fr-dii">Figure 1:Sine Systems ecomate® Rugged Metal (RM) Shielded Connectors. Source: Mouser Electronics<h2>Features and Specifications</h2><h3>EMI/RFI Protection</h3>Radio Frequency Interference and Electromagnetic Interference are disturbances that affect electrical circuits through conduction, electrostatic coupling, or electromagnetic induction. The sources of these disturbances can be power lines, motors, radios, Wi-Fi routers, and other electronic devices. These interferences can cause various issues in electronic devices, including malfunctions, data loss, noise, performance degradation and even reduced lifespan.&nbsp;Amphenol Sine Systems ecomate® Rugged Metal Shielded Connectors use high-quality metal materials that not only enhance the physical durability of these connectors but also provide superior shielding against EMI and RFI, which is crucial to maintaining the integrity of data and power transmission, especially in high electrical noise environments.<h3>Available Configurations</h3>The ecomate® RM connectors come in various configurations that include different pin counts and connector types, allowing engineers to choose the exact specification that best suits their project requirements. For instance, the eight shell sizes accommodate different cable diameters and contact densities, providing flexibility to select the most suitable size for their specific power and signal requirements. Moreover, Up to 28 insert arrangements ensure compatibility with various applications. &nbsp;<iframe id="66a21a7832680c447850f826" width="250" class="specs-iframe" height="440" src="https://wevolver.com/iframe/specs/amphenol-commercial-osfp-interconnect-system?iframe=true" frameborder="0" scrolling="no" data-lf-form-tracking-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-yt-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-vimeo-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</iframe>Amphenol Sine Systems ecomate® Rugged Metal Shielded Connectors offer a variety of contact types, including machined, stamped and formed, and PCB contact types, providing precision, cost-efficiency, and simplified assembly, respectively that allows engineers to select the most suitable termination method for their application.The connectors also provide a broad spectrum of power-handling capabilities as they can accommodate wires ranging from 30AWG to 8AWG, which is suitable for applications with low-power signals as well as high-current transmission applications. Similarly, crimp and solder contact terminations are available to cater to varying assembly preferences and equipment. Crimp terminations offer a fast and reliable assembly method, while solder terminations provide a permanent and secure connection.<img width="1026" src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzIyNTkzNDUwNzU5LTE3MjI1OTM0NTA3NTguanBlZyIsImVkaXRzIjp7InJlc2l6ZSI6eyJ3aWR0aCI6OTUwLCJmaXQiOiJjb3ZlciJ9fX0=" class="fr-fic fr-dii">Figure 2: Connector Configuration. Source: amphenol-sine.com<h2>Environmental Ratings</h2>The Ingress Protection (IP) rating is a crucial feature for connectors because it indicates the level of protection against environmental factors like dust and water, which directly affects the durability and reliability of the connectors in various environments. For instance, connectors used in dusty environments need to be protected against dust ingress to prevent contamination that can impair electrical connections. Similarly, in environments like outdoor, marine, or industrial environments where water exposure is possible, water-resistant connectors are essential to avoid short circuits and potential failures.Amphenol Sine Systems ecomate® Rugged Metal Shielded Connectors provide an IP67 rating in the mated condition, where '6' indicates the level of protection against solid particles like dust, whereas '7' indicates protection against immersion in water up to 1-meter depth for up to 30 minutes. Moreover, these connectors are corrosion-resistant and can operate at temperatures as high as 125 °C.<img width="229" src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzIyNTkzNDUwNzc0LTE3MjI1OTM0NTA3NzQuanBlZyIsImVkaXRzIjp7InJlc2l6ZSI6eyJ3aWR0aCI6OTUwLCJmaXQiOiJjb3ZlciJ9fX0=" class="fr-fic fr-dii">Figure 3: Ingress Protection (IP67) Source amphenol-sine.com<h2>Applications</h2>The ecomate® RM series's flexibility allows many applications across various industries. Some of these applications are discussed here.<h3>Solar Energy - Power</h3>In solar energy systems, having a reliable power transmission is critical for the efficient operation. The ecomate® RM series, due to its rugged design and shielding capabilities, provides the perfect solution in these demanding outdoor environments by withstanding harsh weather conditions, including extreme temperatures and windblown debris. Moreover, the high IP67 rating ensures protection against dust and moisture ingress, even during heavy rain. This combination of durability and environmental protection offered by the ecomate® RM series ensures reliability in renewable energy systems by safeguarding the integrity of power connections.<h3>Off-Road - Mining, Railway, Mobile Equipment</h3>The ecomate® RM series is well suited for the challenging environments encountered in off-road applications such as mining, railway, and mobile equipment that often involve high mechanical stress, shock, vibration, and exposure to extreme temperatures, dust, salt, and water. The rugged metal shell and high IP67 rating of the ecomate® RM series provide corrosion resistance, water and dust proofing, and resistance against these mechanical stresses, which ensures reliable performance and minimizes connector failure risk.<h3>Instrumentation – Measurement, Water Metering</h3>The imperative of precision and reliability in instrumentation applications like process control, environmental monitoring, and scientific research is undeniable; however, it is compromised by noise and signal distortion. The high-quality, rugged metal material of the ecomate® RM series provides protection against electromagnetic and radio frequency interference that guarantees precise and reliable signal transmission without any electrical noise and signal distortion. This ensures the integrity of collected data, accurate measurements and reliable operation of instrumentation equipment. For instance, in measurement devices or water metering systems, these connectors ensure accurate data transmission and reliable performance without compromising the accuracy of measurements.<h3>Building Automation - HVAC, Lighting, Closed Circuit TV</h3>Amphenol Sine Systems' ecomate® RM Series Connectors offer several advantages for building management systems (BMS) applications involving HVAC, lighting, and closed-circuit TV (CCTV). The rugged construction, along with 45A / 600V maximum ratings, enables these connectors to handle the power requirements of these building automation systems. Various shell sizes, insert arrangements, and contact types offer flexibility to accommodate diverse wiring requirements within BMS applications. Moreover, the connectors are intermatable with other industry-standard connectors, which allows easy integration into existing systems.<h3>Telecom – Data Infrastructure, Traffic Control</h3>The ecomate® RM series also delivers dependable data and control connections for telecom applications and ensures reliable signal transmission within critical infrastructure such as data centers, communication towers, and traffic control systems. This minimizes disruptions and ensures the smooth operation of communication networks and traffic management systems.<h1>Benefits</h1>Engineers can leverage several key benefits by incorporating ecomate® RM connectors into their designs.&nbsp;<h3>Versatility Across Industries</h3>The diverse configurations and robust design make the ecomate® RM series adaptable to a wide range of applications, which simplifies design processes, reduces inventory requirements, and promotes standardization across projects. Engineers can streamline design and optimize project efficiency with a single connector solution catering to various needs. Moreover, the contacts can be shared with other ecomate® connectors like ecomate® Aquarius™, Aquarius™ Fathom Lock, and RSSM series, providing flexibility.<h3>Enhanced Environmental Protection</h3>Another huge advantage offered by ecomate® RM Shielded Connectors is that they provide protection against harsh environmental factors. For instance, dust can severely impact the performance and reliability of ordinary electrical connectors by acting as an insulating layer, increasing contact resistance and causing signal interference.&nbsp;Dust particles can also cause abrasion, leading to wear and unreliable connections, and may obstruct mechanical parts, making connectors difficult to mate properly. Moreover, dust, along with moisture, can carry corrosive substances that promote contact corrosion and contamination, further impairing connectivity. All of these harmful environmental factors can be easily avoided by using ecomate® RM Shielded Connectors with rugged metal construction and high IP ratings that safeguard against dust, moisture, corrosion and extreme temperatures.<h3>Improved Performance and Longevity of Connected Systems</h3>Ecomate® RM Shielded Connectors are particularly crucial in applications involving sensitive electronics or high-speed data transfer, where even minor disruptions can lead to system malfunctions. The shielding capabilities of Ecomate® RM Shielded Connectors minimize signal interference and ensure reliable data transmission. Moreover, the rugged construction enhances the overall longevity of connected systems, reducing maintenance costs and downtime.<h1>Conclusion</h1>In conclusion, the Amphenol Sine Systems ecomate® Rugged Metal Shielded Connectors are a standout choice for engineers seeking reliable, durable, and versatile connectors for their projects. The robust metal construction, advanced shielding capabilities, and high Ingress Protection ratings allow these connectors to perform in the most challenging conditions.&nbsp;Their applications span across various industries, from renewable energy and off-road applications to building automation and telecom, which is a testament to their versatility and reliability. The ecomate® RM connectors not only provide enhanced protection against environmental factors but also improve the performance and longevity of connected systems.<h1>Call to Action</h1>For engineers looking to enhance the performance and reliability of their projects, the ecomate® RM connectors are the dependable solution. Consider integrating these connectors into your next project to experience their exceptional benefits and performance. Amphenol Sine Systems' commitment to quality and innovation guarantees that the ecomate® RM connectors will meet and exceed your expectations.For further information on the ecomate® RM series specifications, configurations, and compatibility with your specific application, visit the website of their authorized distributor, Mouser Electronics &nbsp; https://eu.mouser.com/new/amphenol/amphenol-eco-mate-rm-connectors/. The website offers comprehensive product information, including datasheets, <a href="https://www.amphenol-sine.com/pdf/Assembly-Instructions/ecomate-rm-Assembly-Instructions.pdf" target="_blank" data-lf-fd-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true">assembly instructions</a>, <a href="https://eu.mouser.com/pdfDocs/ecomate-Family-Flyer-2019-5.pdf" target="_blank" data-lf-fd-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true">catalog</a> and installation guides. Additionally, authorized distributors can provide technical support and assist you in selecting the most suitable connector configuration for your project requirements.<h1>References</h1><ol><li>Amphenol Sine Systems ecomate® Rugged Metal (RM) Shielded Connectors. Mouser Electronics. [Online], Available at: <a href="https://eu.mouser.com/new/amphenol/amphenol-eco-mate-rm-connectors/" target="_blank">https://eu.mouser.com/new/amphenol/amphenol-eco-mate-rm-connectors/</a></li><li>Amphenol Sine Systems and Amphenol Tuchel Electronics GmbH. [Online], Available at: <a href="https://www.amphenol-sine.com/about" target="_blank">https://www.amphenol-sine.com/about</a>&nbsp;</li></ol>

Amphenol Sine Systems' ecomate® Rugged Metal (RM) Shielded Connectors overcome RFI/EMI and withstand harsh environments. Enhance the reliability of your projects with durable, versatile connectors perfect for industrial, off-road, solar, and more applications.

Amphenol Sine Systems ecomate® Rugged Metal (RM) Shielded Connectors

Researchers from ITMO University have managed to improve the efficacy of perovskite solar cells with the help of silicon nanoantennas, which increase the concentration of light in the material at certain wavelengths. In the future, specialists can employ the new method to create solar cells for indoor lighting and even the space industry. The results of the study are <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S138589472404258X" target="_blank" id="isPasted">published</a> in Chemical Engineering Journal.Solar panels are the driving force of wireless autonomous electronics. At their core are solar cells – electronic devices that convert light directly into electricity. The main obstacle to the widespread use of solar panels is their low efficiency: the maximum efficiency of solar panels at top laboratories reaches values of just about 26%. However, even the 26% figure is hard to obtain, as physicists have to comply with strict requirements such as sterile rooms and materials.Solar cells and batteries in general can be improved by developing semiconductor materials that efficiently absorb light. Perovskites are considered promising since they are light, thin, and easy-to-produce and can be used to make thin solar cells with varied bending shapes, low weight, and multiple applications. Like other semiconductors, perovskites, however, absorb just a fraction of the spectrum and therefore generate less energy than they receive from the source.To that end, ITMO scientists have developed perovskite solar cells using silicon-based optical resonant nanoantennas. Depending on their size and refractive index, nanoantennas resonantly scatter light, thus increasing its concentration in the perovskite at certain wavelengths (in this case, 500-800 nm). The method is suitable for different types of perovskite-based semiconductors that absorb light in various spectral ranges.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1720662640362-1381101.png" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">A nanoantenna solution. Photo courtesy of Lev LogunovIn an experiment, the physicists infused several nanoparticle solutions into a solar cell to magnify light in various wavelengths: blue, green, yellow, red, and near IR. The specialists tested the obtained samples via a sun simulator and measured the conversion rate.&nbsp;The experiment showed that the efficiency of the cells increased as compared to the initial samples, which demonstrated a 19% rate. The best effect was achieved in two solutions of nanoantenna particles. The sample with nanoparticles with an average size of 160 nm showed a maximum efficiency of up to 20.5%; the efficiency of a sample with 140 nm nanoparticles, which scatter light in the green wavelength range, increased to 20.3%. The researchers are satisfied with the results of the study, as it was achieved in genuine systems, rather than in an ideal laboratory environment, which means the method can be massively introduced for a broader class of perovskite solar cells.“We’re going to further improve our solar cells and broaden the range of their uses; in particular, we want to adapt them for diffuse sources (such as indoor lighting solutions), which come with their own spectral properties. We'll also continue our work with nanoantennas. Perhaps, in the future, our solar cells will be used underwater or even in space,” -says&nbsp;Aleksandra Furasova, the first author of the paper and a researcher at the Laboratory of Hybrid Nanophotonics and Optoelectronics of ITMO’s Faculty of Physics.

Perovskite solar cells with nanoantennas. Photo by Dmitry Grigoryev / ITMO.NEWS

Researchers from ITMO University have managed to improve the efficacy of perovskite solar cells with the help of silicon nanoantennas, which increase the concentration of light in the material at certain wavelengths.

Solar Cells Made More Efficient Thanks to Silicon Nanoantennas

The sun’s rays are the source of all the Earth’s renewable energy. This manna from heaven supplies the equivalent of one barrel (159 liters) of oil per square meter per year – at least in sunny regions, like Switzerland’s canton of Valais – at no cost.What’s more, our capacity for turning solar energy into electrical power is on the rise. That’s partly because engineers are constantly making improvements to boost the yields of photovoltaic (PV) cells, and partly (or even mostly) because both supply and demand for these units are booming. Nearly 375 GW of solar-panel capacity was installed globally in 2023. That’s four times more than in 2019 and 20 times more than in 2010. It’s a lot, but still not enough.Christophe Ballif, the head of EPFL’s Laboratory of Photovoltaics and Thin-Film Electronics (PV Lab) in Neuchâtel, puts these figures in perspective: “By 2050, we’ll need to replace 80% of the fossil fuels we currently use with clean energy. It’s a huge challenge. If we continue at the same pace as in 2023, when 375 GW of solar capacity and 110 GW of wind capacity were installed, then it’ll take around 120 years to get there. But our goal is to accomplish the energy transition in 30 years – a more reasonable time frame in light of the climate crisis. That means we’ll need to increase annual solar capacity installation by a factor of nearly four, to 1,500 GW.” Yet he thinks this is possible: “China has invested between $60 billion and $80 billion over the past three years in new manufacturing capabilities for everything from polysilicon to complete solar units. By next year at the latest, it should have the required production capacity. But this Herculean effort on the supply side is actually coming a little too soon. We’re clearly in a situation of overcapacity.”<h2>A combination of solar and wind</h2>Solar power will make up a sharply growing share of the world’s energy mix, which is good news. In Switzerland, the government has introduced targets for transitioning to solar and other kinds of renewable energy by 2050. The goal is to have renewables supply 45 TWh, or more than half of the country’s total power demand based on current levels. Experts agree that the most effective way to reach this target is to combine solar with other forms of clean energy: hydropower, of course, but ideally also a sizable amount of wind power.To be employed with power grids, both solar and wind power need to be coupled with one or more storage systems such as batteries, dams and synthesis gas. For batteries in particular (including EV batteries), China is once again the world’s manufacturing powerhouse. Here too, the country has made massive investments in new facilities. “China is flooding the market and overproducing to the point where prices are collapsing, for both batteries and solar units,” says Ballif. “That’s good for consumers and the energy transition in general, but it will create a form of dependency that we don’t want. Governments in other regions, including in Europe, need to build and expand their manufacturing capacity in order to make the market more resilient.”<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1717983897855-8cd2ff71.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Illustration Éric Buche<h2 id="isPasted">Neuchâtel: A hub of yield-boosting technology</h2>That said, it’s not easy to invest in capacity when you’re up against that kind of competition. But it is possible to find ways of doing things better, or differently. Engineers at Ballif’s lab and at the Centre Suisse d’Électronique et de Microtechnique (CSEM) in Neuchâtel, where Ballif also heads a research group, have developed methods for considerably increasing the yields of PV cells. Some of their technology is being implemented in China’s new factories. For instance, the engineers designed “tandem” cells consisting of a perovskite layer deposited on a silicon cell. These devices set a new world record for power conversion efficiency and broke through the symbolic 30% yield barrier.A number of solar-energy startups have popped up in and around Neuchâtel, building on the research conducted by researchers there. Some of those companies are developing systems for integrating PV cells into a building’s architecture through panels and tiles with customizable colors (these firms include Freesuns, Solaxess and SwissINSO), while others are creating systems specifically for farming applications (Insolight and Voltiris). “It’s true that these startups operate in niche markets,” says Ballif. “But as far as Switzerland is concerned, their technology can go a long way towards meeting the government’s targets.” They’re also proof that Swiss businesses aren’t about to throw in the towel. Just look at Thun-based 3S, which recently built a new 200 MW/year production line for solar panels that can be integrated into buildings, and Meyer Burger, which now has a total production capacity of 1 GW/year at sites in Europe. Both these companies leverage technology developed in association with CSEM and EPFL.Forecasts by the Swiss Federal Office of Energy indicate that solar power will be a key component of the country’s energy mix in 2050 (see infographic). “The potential for solar is definitely there,” Ballif explains. “PV cells can be integrated into buildings’ architecture, placed on top of supermarkets and their parking lots, for example, and installed on mountains, where models with bifacial panels – which can also capture the sunlight that reflects off snow – are particularly effective during the winter. Switzerland’s total installed capacity was 1.5 GW in 2023, which can generate 1.5 TWh of solar power per year. This renewable energy should reach 10% of our energy mix in 2024. So it’s on track to make a major contribution to the government’s goal of having 45 TWh of power come from renewables.”<h2>Reshaping geopolitics</h2>Looking at the bigger picture, the pressure that Chinese manufacturers are putting on the prices of PV and wind components, batteries and electrolyzers could substantially alter the geopolitical playing field. “At these prices, operators could build plants in Africa’s deserts and generate power at less than 1.3 cents per kWh. That’s five to ten times cheaper than the cost at newly built nuclear plants. This would make it more economical to produce clean hydrogen by water electrolysis than to produce grey hydrogen from natural gas,” says Ballif. “Another option could be to turn the hydrogen into ammonia, initially for use in crop fertilizer and later for transporting energy to Europe.”If renewable energy gets that cheap, many governments and businesses could be tempted to ramp up their support for the energy transition, simply because it makes financial sense. That would be a blow to oil-exporting nations like Russia and Saudia Arabia. “China may be saving the planet – but that will create other challenges!” says Ballif.<hr>For more details, take a look at our longread "<a href="https://longread.epfl.ch/en/dossier/energies-go-green/" target="_blank" id="isPasted">Energies go green</a>".

Solar energy, which is both abundant and free, is poised to become the world’s leading power source by 2050. © iStock

Solar energy, which is both abundant and free, is poised to become the world’s leading power source by 2050. That’s thanks largely to technological advances and the unbridled manufacturing of solar cells, which bodes well for a successful energy transition.

The bright future of solar energy

The production of cement, metals and many chemical commodities requires extremely high temperatures of over a thousand degrees Celsius. At present, this heat is usually obtained by combusting fossil fuels: coal or natural gas, which emit large amounts of greenhouse gases. Heating with renewable electricity is not an alternative, as this would be inefficient at these high temperatures. Although much of our economy and society will need to become carbon neutral in the coming decades, these industrial processes are likely to continue to be powered by fossil fuels for the near future. They are considered difficult to decarbonise. &nbsp; &nbsp;Researchers at ETH Zurich have now demonstrated, in the lab, a way to make these industries independent of fossil fuels. Using solar radiation, they have engineered a device that can deliver heat at the high temperatures needed for the production processes. The team led by Emiliano Casati, a scientist in the Energy and Process Systems Engineering Group, and Aldo Steinfeld, Professor of Renewable Energy Carriers, has developed a thermal trap. It consists of a quartz rod coupled to a ceramic absorber which, thanks to its optical properties, can efficiently absorb sunlight and convert it into heat.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;In their lab-scale experiments, the team used a quartz rod measuring 7.5 centimetres in diameter and 30 centimetres in length. They exposed it to artificial light with an intensity equivalent to 135 times that of sunlight, reaching temperatures of up to 1050 degrees Celsius. Previous studies by other researchers have achieved a maximum of 170 degrees with such thermal traps.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1717028136435-image.imageformat.1286.1508405936.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Illustration of the experimental thermal trap. It consists of a quartz rod (inside) and a ceramic absorber (outside). Solar radiation enters at the front, heat is generated in the rear area. (Visualizations: Casati E et al. Device 2024, edited)Large-scale solar concentrating technologies are already established at an industrial scale for solar power generation, for example in Spain, the US and in China. These plants typically operate at up to 600 degrees. At higher temperatures, heat loss by radiation increases and reduces the efficiency of the plants. A major advantage of the thermal trap developed by ETH Zurich researchers is that it minimises radiative heat losses.<h2>High-temperature solar plants</h2>Our approach significantly improves the efficiency of solar absorption,” says Casati. “We are, therefore, confident that this technology supports the deployment of high-temperature solar plants.” However, detailed technical and economic analyses are still pending, he says. Such analysis is beyond the scope of the current experimental study, which the researchers have published in the scientific journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.device.2024.100399" target="_blank">external pageDevicecall_made</a>.Casati is continuing his research to optimise the process. The technology could one day make it possible to use solar energy not only to generate electricity, but also to decarbonise energy-intensive industries on a large scale. “To combat climate change, we need to decarbonise energy in general," says Casati. “People often think of energy in terms of electricity, but we actually use about half of our energy in the form of heat.”<hr><h2 id="isPasted">Reference &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</h2>Casati E, Allgoewer L, Steinfeld A: Solar thermal trapping at 1,000°C and above. Device, 15. May 2024, doi: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.device.2024.100399" target="_blank">external page10.1016/j.device.2024.100399</a>

The main component of the thermal trap is a cylinder made of quartz. In the experiments, it reached a temperature of 1050 degrees Celsius and glowed at this heat. (Photograph: ETH Zurich / Emiliano Casati)

Instead of burning coal or oil to produce cement or steel, in the future solar energy could be used for this purpose. Researchers at ETH Zurich have developed a thermal trap that can absorb concentrated sunlight and deliver heat at over thousand degrees Celsius.

Using solar energy to generate heat at high temperatures

Lower-income communities across the United States have long been much slower to adopt solar power than their affluent neighbors, even when local and federal agencies offer tax breaks and other financial incentives.But, commercial and industrial rooftops, such as those atop retail buildings and factories, offer a big opportunity to reduce what researchers call the “solar equity gap,” according to <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41560-024-01485-y" data-extlink="" target="_blank">a new study</a>, published in Nature Energy and led by researchers at Stanford University.“The solar equity gap is a serious problem in disadvantaged communities, in part because of income inequalities, but also because residential solar isn’t usually practical for people who don’t own their homes,” said <a href="https://profiles.stanford.edu/ram-rajagopal" data-extlink="" target="_blank">Ram Rajagopal</a>, senior author of the study and associate professor of <a href="https://cee.stanford.edu/" data-extlink="" target="_blank">civil and environmental engineering</a> and of <a href="https://ee.stanford.edu/" data-extlink="" target="_blank">electrical engineering</a> at Stanford. “This new study shows that commercial and industrial properties have the capacity to host solar resources to fill in part of that gap.”<h2>Untapped resources</h2>First, the bad news. The researchers found that non-residential rooftops generate 38% less electricity in disadvantaged communities than in wealthier ones. That gap, which is mainly because of lower deployment in poorer areas, has widened over the past two decades. Nevertheless, this gap is significantly lower than that of residential solar in these neighborhoods.The good news, the researchers say, is that non-residential buildings have large unused capacity to produce solar power for their own benefit and to supply the communities around them. In low-income communities, commercial enterprises may be more responsive to government incentives for solar power than households are. <a href="https://engineering.stanford.edu/magazine/solar-panels-are-largely-confined-wealthy-americans" target="_blank">An earlier study</a> by the same researchers found that residential customers in disadvantaged communities, who may have fewer financial resources and often don’t own their homes, show less response to tax breaks and other financial inducements.“Using Stanford’s <a href="https://deepsolar.web.app/" data-extlink="" target="_blank">DeepSolar</a> database, we estimated that solar arrays on non-residential buildings could meet more than a fifth of annual residential electricity demand in almost two-thirds of disadvantaged communities,” said <a href="https://de.linkedin.com/in/moritz-wussow-35082453?original_referer=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2F" data-extlink="" target="_blank">Moritz Wussow</a>, the study’s lead author.“Also, the raw cost of that power would be less in many communities than the residential rates that local electric utilities charge,” said Wussow, who was a visiting student researcher in Rajagopal’s lab group in 2022 and 2023.To quantify the distribution of non-residential solar power installations, the researchers used satellite images and artificial intelligence to identify the number and size of rooftop solar arrays in 72,739 census tracts across the United States. About one-third of those tracts are deemed disadvantaged by the U.S. government.The team tracked non-residential solar deployment as well as the amount of unused rooftops that would be good candidates for solar installation from 2006 through 2016 and then again for 2022. They then calculated the average annual cost of producing solar electricity in each area, based on the amount of local sun exposure and other variables. The costs ranged from about 6.4 cents per kilowatt-hour in sun-drenched New Mexico to almost 11 cents in Alaska. But those costs were lower than residential electricity rates in many of those areas – even in many northern states.<a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/chad-zanocco-582a031a" data-extlink="" target="_blank">Chad Zanocco</a>, a co-author of the new study and a postdoctoral fellow in civil and environmental engineering, noted that getting the power to residential areas would include other costs, such as battery storage and the construction of microgrids.“We estimate that battery storage would increase total system costs by about 50%, but even that would be practical in almost two-thirds of the disadvantaged communities we studied,” Zanocco said.<h2>Economies of scale</h2>If commercial and industrial solar arrays can feed their surplus electricity into local power grids, the researchers write, lower-income residents could gain access through community subscriptions rather than by building their own rooftop panels. Commercial and industrial sites also offer greater economies of scale, compared to individual household solar panels. Another big advantage is that non-residential power customers could also be highly sensitive to tax incentives and other government inducements, leading to greater adoption.Further lowering barriers, the researchers noted, is the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022 which has provided billions of dollars for states and local communities for clean-energy infrastructure. That money has already reduced the cost of new microgrids.“Beyond reducing carbon emissions and slowing climate change, increased access to solar power would offer tangible local benefits to lower-income communities,” said <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/zhecheng-wang-96287b132/" data-extlink="" target="_blank">Zhecheng Wang</a>, a co-author and a postdoctoral fellow at Stanford’s Institute for Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence.“This would promote local clean and low-cost energy generation, which would also increase the resilience from outages and reduce the pollution caused by fossil fuel power plants – many of which are located in low-income areas.”Additional Stanford co-authors on the paper are:&nbsp;<a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/rajanieprabha" data-extlink="" target="_blank">Rajanie Prabha</a>, a PhD student in Civil &amp; Environmental Engineering;&nbsp;<a href="https://profiles.stanford.edu/june-flora" data-extlink="" target="_blank">June Flora</a>, a senior research scholar in Civil &amp; Environmental Engineering, and in Stanford’s School of Medicine; and&nbsp;<a href="https://profiles.stanford.edu/arun-majumdar" data-extlink="" target="_blank">Arun Majumdar</a>, dean of Stanford Doerr School of Sustainability, professor in the departments of Energy Science &amp; Engineering, of Mechanical Engineering, and of Photon Science at SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, and senior fellow at the Precourt Institute and Stanford Woods Institute for the Environment. Civil &amp; Environmental Engineering is a joint department of the&nbsp;<a href="https://engineering.stanford.edu/" target="_blank">Stanford School of Engineering</a>&nbsp;and the Stanford Doerr School of Sustainability.&nbsp;<a href="https://www.is.uni-freiburg.de/mitarbeiter-en/team/dirk-neumann" data-extlink="" target="_blank">Dirk Neumann</a>, a professor of information systems research at Albert-Ludwigs-Universität in Freiburg, Germany, is also a co-author. Ram Rajagopal is also co-director of the Bits &amp; Watts Initiative at the&nbsp;<a href="http://energy.stanford.edu/" data-extlink="" target="_blank">Precourt Institute for Energy</a>, which is part of the&nbsp;<a href="https://sustainability.stanford.edu/" data-extlink="" target="_blank">Stanford Doerr School of Sustainability</a>.

What measures can be taken to reduce the "solar equity gap"? | Image courtesy of Hans Wilschut

A new study finds that factory and warehouse rooftops offer a big untapped opportunity to help disadvantaged communities bridge the solar energy divide.

Stanford-led research shows how commercial rooftop solar power could bring affordable clean energy to low-income homes

Research and industry worldwide are working on the commercialization of perovskite photovoltaics.&nbsp;Most research laboratories focus on solvent-based manufacturing processes because they are versatile and easy to use.&nbsp;However, established photovoltaic companies today rely almost exclusively on vacuum processes to deposit high-quality thin films.&nbsp;An international consortium led by the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) and the US Department of Energy's National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL, USA) has analyzed this critical discrepancy between laboratory and industry.&nbsp;They emphasize: Industrially proven vacuum processes could, with certain improvements, contribute to the rapid commercialization of perovskite solar cells.&nbsp;The results appeared in&nbsp;Energy &amp; Environmental Science (DOI:&nbsp;<a href="https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlepdf/2024/ee/d3ee03273f" target="_blank">10.1039/d3ee03273f</a> ).Perovskite-silicon tandem solar cells have undergone rapid development in the past ten years: Efficiencies of more than 33 percent have been achieved in research.&nbsp;This means they are already better than conventional silicon-based solar cells.&nbsp;However, it is still not ready for the market.&nbsp;One of the hurdles is the unresolved question of which process can best be used to produce perovskite solar cells as a mass product.&nbsp;Solvent-based manufacturing processes that are used in laboratories worldwide are contrasted with vapor phase deposition processes in vacuum, which are still standard today in the production of thin films in photovoltaics or in the production of organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs). &nbsp; In a current comparative study, an international consortium of academic and industrial partners led by NREL and KIT revealed major differences in the scientific approach to these production processes.&nbsp;Tenure-track professor Ulrich W. Paetzold from the Institute of Microstructure Technology and the Light Technology Institute of KIT explains: “98 percent of all scientific studies in 2022 were published on solvent-based processes.&nbsp;Vacuum-based processes that have proven themselves in industry for decades and could significantly advance the commercialization of solar cells are neglected.”To explain: Solvent-based production uses inks in which organic and inorganic salts are dissolved in a solvent.&nbsp;These inks can then be deposited onto the surface of a substrate via various printing techniques.&nbsp;In contrast, vacuum-based manufacturing uses dry and solvent-free processes.&nbsp;The materials are sublimated in a vacuum with the addition of heat, i.e. transferred from the solid to the gaseous state and condensed on the substrate surface.&nbsp;In principle, it is also possible to combine both processes for the production of perovskite solar cells.<h2>Laboratory efficiencies and throughput are not everything when it comes to mass production</h2>In the study, the authors analyzed the advantages and disadvantages of both methods.&nbsp;The dominance of solvent-based production in research so far lies in its uncomplicated handling in laboratories, which is the reason for very good results in terms of efficiency under laboratory conditions and its low costs.&nbsp;In addition, there is the possible scalable roll-to-roll production, i.e. endless deposition between two rolls, similar to newspaper printing.In comparison, the vacuum-based production process causes slightly higher investment costs and, based on the processes used in research, is currently still behind in terms of deposition speed, i.e. production throughput.&nbsp;However, the authors show a variety of possible solutions and estimate that it is competitive taking into account real parameters such as electricity costs, production yield, material, decommissioning or recycling costs.&nbsp;Above all, the good repeatability of the deposition, the simple process control, the availability of industrial process equipment and the easy scaling of the deposition from small solar cell areas in the laboratory to application-relevant product areas make the process highly interesting for commercialization.&nbsp;“Vacuum-based production performs better than its reputation,” says Tobias Abzieh.&nbsp;It is therefore not surprising that the authors, in a first-ever published overview of commercialization activities in perovskite technology, were already able to demonstrate a lively interest in vacuum-based processes for the production of perovskite solar cells on the part of industry - despite the discrepancy in this regard on the method mainly used in research.In order for vacuum-based processes to fully exploit their scaling effects, the manufacturing method still needs to be further improved, according to the researchers. Among other things, further research must be carried out on the quality of the separation in order to further increase the efficiency. It is also important to significantly increase the speed of deposition. “Vacuum-based manufacturing processes are not only the industry’s first choice when it comes to bringing thin-film technologies to market maturity. Our analysis also shows that the processes are competitive with solvent-based approaches,” adds David More from NREL.<hr>Original publicationTobias Abzieh, David T. Moore, Marcel Roß, Steve Albrecht, Jared Silvia, Hairen Tan, Quentin Jeangros, Christophe Ballif, Maximilian T. Hoerantner, Beom-Soo Kim, Henk J. Bolink, Paul Pistor, Jan Christoph Goldschmidt, Yu -Hsien Chiang, Samuel D. Stranks, Juliane Borchert, Michael D. McGehee, Monica Morales-Masis, Jay B. Patel, Annalisa Bruno and Ulrich W. Paetzold: Vapor phase deposition of perovskite photovoltaics: short track to commercialization? Energy &amp; Environmental Science, 2024. DOI: 10.1039/d3ee03273f

Perovskite photovoltaics promise high levels of efficiency. Researchers from KIT and partners have now analyzed different production approaches. (Photo: Tobias Zieher)

Various production approaches in research and industry – comparative study explores paths to mass production

Perovskite Solar Cells: Vacuum Process Can Lead to Market Readiness

As the world looks to phase out fossil fuels in favor of cleaner, renewable energy sources, more effort is being put into improving existing renewable technologies and creating devices that can harness renewable energy sources in new ways. Sunlight captured in solar cells is currently one of the most used renewable energy sources. However, there are also a number of other ways in which sunlight can be harnessed to produce energy.Given the amount of sun that hits the Earth each day, there is excellent potential for solar-based energy harvesting devices to become one of the front runners in a cleaner and greener society—and expand on their existing position as one of the leading renewable technologies. Designers are testing and using 2D materials in a number of these solar-harvesting systems, from the widespread use of graphene in solar cells to the use of different 2D materials in photocatalytic and photothermal harvesting approaches.<h2>Photovoltaics (Solar Cells)</h2>Of all the solar harvesting methodologies and technologies in existence, solar cells are by and far the most commercialized, most popular, and most efficient choice. There are several bulk solar cells in existence composed of silicon and perovskite materials. In addition, a number of approaches are being developed where 2D materials (and other nanomaterials) are being used to either improve the performance of bulk silicon solar cells or offer a way to create much thinner and/or more flexible solar cells. In the latter, there are already a number of flexible organic solar cells; however, the active materials tend to suffer from a much lower performance than inorganic materials, so 2D materials offer a way of providing thinner solar cells with much-improved performance.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1707665382989-nuno-marques-0GbrjL3vZF4-unsplash.jpg" style="width: 766px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Photo by Nuno Marques on UnsplashMany devices are in existence where doped graphene has been used as the photoactive material in the semiconducting photovoltaic junction within solar cells, sometimes on its own and other times in conjunction with silicon in bulkier solar cells. Beyond this, graphene and its derivatives are touted as an alternative for the hole transport layer instead of expensive noble metals, such as silver and gold, in an attempt to lower the cost of large-scale solar cells. Graphene is also used in conjunction with silicon in a number of other hybrid devices, including in the creation of thinner, flexible and semi-transparent solar cells.While graphene is gathering the most interest, graphene and transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs) are being integrated into different solar cells—because of their stability and resistance to several potentially degrading stimuli—to improve their long-term stability and ensure that they run optimally for longer. These 2D materials are being integrated into a wide range of bulk solar cells on a commercial level, including in silicon and perovskite solar cells as well as in tandem solar cells.In recent years, the interest in flexible solar cells has significantly grown, and while graphene was the first 2D material tested for solar cells, the area has since expanded and continues to do so. In recent years, TMDCs have been used alongside graphene to create efficient, flexible solar cells and perovskite materials are now being made into 2D sheets to try and emulate the success of the bulkier perovskite solar cells—but in the form of a much smaller and flexible solar cell. 2D perovskite solar cells have not yet been able to reach the heights of their bulkier counterparts, but it is a much newer addition to the 2D family, so there is still plenty of time for them to play a part in 2D material-enhanced solar cells.<h2>Photocatalytic Harvesting</h2>Photocatalytic reactions generate new greener fuels and are different from many other energy harvesting technologies where the direct output is electricity. In photocatalytic harvesting, the energy from sunlight is harvested to produce fuel, which can then be used to power devices and electronic systems. Photocatalytic harvesting is currently a promising approach in water splitting technologies to produce hydrogen fuel.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzA3NjY1MTg2MzAzLWFuZHJlYXMtZ3Vja2xob3JuLUlscGYyZVVQcFVFLXVuc3BsYXNoLmpwZyIsImVkaXRzIjp7InJlc2l6ZSI6eyJ3aWR0aCI6OTUwLCJmaXQiOiJjb3ZlciJ9fX0=" style="width: 766px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Photo by Andreas Gücklhorn on UnsplashPhotocatalytic harvesting occurs when semiconducting materials are used. The photocatalytic harvesting occurs because the photons from the sunlight (with a high energy) generate an electron-hole pair in the semiconducting material once absorbed. However, these photogenerated excited states tend to be unstable, so the charge carriers recombine. During this separation and recombination process, the electrons and holes are transported across the surface of the material, which either reduces or oxidizes the absorbed atoms. It is this process that leads to the generation of hydrogen gas, and there is a similar photocatalytic process that can be used to generate oxygen molecules as well (often at the same time).Photocatalytic reactions can be initiated using a number of materials, and a number of different semiconducting 2D materials are used for these photocatalytic harvesting reactions. In many cases, the exposed edges on the 2D sheets offer an effective site for the photocatalytic reactions to take place. TMDCs, such as molybdenum disulfide, have gathered a great deal of interest because the sheets actively absorb hydrogen ions. Graphene and its derivatives—especially doped versions to make them semiconducting—are also well-tested materials because the high surface area of both graphene and TMDCs, alongside their absorption and electrical conductivity properties, make them suitable catalytic sites for hydrogen evolution reactions (HER) to produce hydrogen fuel.<h2>Photothermal Harvesting</h2>Photothermal harvesting approaches once again offer a different approach to many conventional solar harvesting technologies. In these harvesting methods, photothermal materials are used to absorb light energy and convert it into heat energy. 2D materials have a range of optical properties that can be harnessed to absorb light waves—and subsequently convert it into heat—with some of the 2D materials exhibiting optical properties that are unique and not found in other material classes, while others having very beneficial properties in general.2D materials are known to absorb wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation across a wide spectrum, including in the visible and near-infrared regions. However, these applications are very different in that these approaches are typically used in medical applications to enable different treatments to take place. The absorption of light and generation of heat means that different medical treatments can take place without the need for more invasive approaches. For example, heat is generated in the form of a vibrational energy, and this energy can be used to target and kill cancer cells.It's an approach that is more niche in nature, and while it doesn’t power devices, different 2D materials—from graphene derivatives, to TMDCs, to MXenes—are being used to harvest light to provide new and efficient medical treatments, and photothermal therapies are becoming an interesting application area for 2D materials alongside the more conventional solar energy harvesting operations.<h2>Conclusion</h2>Solar harvesting, in the form of solar cells, is already an established technology, but 2D materials are offering a way of improving the efficiencies and long-term stabilities of solar cells as well as offering new ways of creating thin, flexible, and transparent solar cells. Beyond solar cells, 2D materials offer great potential for creating hydrogen fuel via photocatalytic reactions and harvesting light for advanced cancer therapies. As modern society looks toward more ways of harvesting our natural environment, 2D materials offer a way to harvest solar rays into a usable output efficiently.

As the world looks to phase out fossil fuels in favor of cleaner, renewable energy sources, more effort is being put into improving existing renewable technologies and creating devices that can harness renewable energy sources in new ways.

Using 2D Materials in Photo-Harvesting Applications

An insight into preventing perovskite semiconductors from degrading quickly, discovered at the University of Michigan, could help enable solar cells estimated to be <a href="https://solarmagazine.com/solar-panels/perovskite-solar-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">two to four times cheaper</a> than today’s thin-film solar panels.&nbsp;Perovskites may also be combined with the silicon-based semiconductors that are prevalent in today’s solar panels to create <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-03714-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">“tandem” solar cells</a> that could surpass the maximum theoretical efficiency of silicon solar cells.“Silicon solar cells are great because they are very efficient and can last for a very long time, but the high efficiency comes with a high cost,” said <a href="https://che.engin.umich.edu/people/gong-xiwen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Xiwen Gong</a>, U-M assistant professor of chemical engineering. “To make high-purity silicon, temperatures over 1,000 degrees Celsius are needed. Otherwise, the efficiency won’t be as good.”The high temperature comes with higher economic and environmental costs. But while perovskites can be produced at lower temperatures, they degrade when exposed to heat, moisture and air. As a result, the lifespan of perovskite today is too short to be commercially competitive in solar panels.&nbsp;<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1705965138185-solar-cell-1.jpg" style="width: 300px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Perovskite solar cells like this one, made by Xiwen Gong’s group, could make solar energy cheaper and more environmentally friendly—but they degrade faster than silicon. In a study published in the journal Matter, the team discovered how to make the black perovskite film last longer. Photo credit: Zhengtao Hu, Gong Lab, University of Michigan.Gong’s research aims to make hardier perovskite solar cells, and her latest study published in the journal Matter&nbsp;suggests that bulky “defect pacifying” molecules are best at increasing the perovskites’ stability and overall lifespan.Perovskite crystals contain lead atoms that aren’t fully bound to the other components within the perovskite. Such “undercoordinated sites” are defects often found on the crystal surfaces and at grain boundaries where there’s a break in the crystal lattice. These defects hinder the movement of electrons and speed up the decay of the perovskite material.&nbsp;Engineers already know that mixing defect pacifying molecules into the perovskites can help lock up the undercoordinated lead, in turn preventing other imperfections from forming at high temperatures. But until now, engineers didn’t know exactly how a given molecule affected the hardiness of perovskite cells.“We wanted to figure out what features on the molecules specifically improve the perovskite’s stability,” said Hongki Kim, a former postdoctoral researcher in chemical engineering and one of the study’s first authors.To investigate the problem, Gong’s team created three additives with a range of shapes and sizes and added them into thin films of perovskite crystals, which can absorb light and convert it to electricity. Each additive contained the same or similar chemical building blocks, which made size, weight and arrangement the main properties differentiating them.&nbsp;<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1705965160076-Perovskite-Additive-Diagram-.jpg" style="width: 300px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Xiwen Gong’s team designed three molecular additives to study the impact of size and configuration on the stability of perovskite films—a material class crucial for creating efficient and cost-effective solar cells. These additives hinder the growth of defects at perovskite crystal lattice breaks, known as grain boundaries, ultimately enhancing solar cell efficiency. The bulkiest molecule effectively covers surface defects on perovskite grains, simultaneously increasing grain size during manufacturing. Larger grains lead to fewer grain boundaries, reducing potential defect sites. Image credit: Carlos A. Figueroa Morales, Gong Lab, University of Michigan.Then, the team measured how strongly the different additives interacted with perovskites and consequently influenced the formation of defects in the films. Larger molecules by mass were better at sticking to the perovskite because they had more binding sites that interact with perovskite crystals. As a result, they tended to be better at preventing defects from forming.But the best additives also needed to take up a lot of space. Large but skinny molecules resulted in smaller perovskite grains during the manufacturing process. Smaller grains aren’t ideal because they also create perovskite cells with more grain boundaries, or more areas for defects to form. In contrast, bulky molecules forced larger perovskite grains to form, which in turn reduced the density of grain boundaries in the film.Heating the perovskite films to over 200 degrees Celsius confirmed that bulky additives helped the films retain more of their characteristic slate black color and develop fewer structural defects.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1705965183557-Carlos-in-lab.jpg" style="width: 766px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Doctoral student Carlos Alejandro Figueroa Morales places a perovskite thin film sample into a spectrometer that measures the light-emitting properties of the perovskites. Changes in how the perovskite films emit light when made with the different additive molecules can reveal how many defects are inside the perovskite. Photo credit: Zhengtao Hu, Gong Lab, University of Michigan.“Both the size and configuration are important when designing additives, and we believe this design philosophy could be implemented across various perovskite formulations to further improve the lifetime of perovskite solar cells, light emitting devices and photodetectors,” said Carlos Alejandro Figueroa Morales, a doctoral student in macromolecular science and engineering and one of the study’s first authors.<hr>Xiwen Gong is also an assistant professor of electrical and computer engineering, materials science and engineering, macromolecular science and engineering, and applied physics. The research was funded by the University of Michigan and relied on a <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/awardsearch/showAward?AWD_ID=1625671&HistoricalAwards=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scanning electron microscope</a> funded by the National Science Foundation. Co-author Nancy Muyanja led the microscopy measurements at the <a href="https://mc2.engin.umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Michigan Center for Materials Characterization</a>.

The findings could help engineers methodically find the best molecules to increase the lifespan of perovskite solar cells, rather than relying on time-consuming trial and error.

Bulky additives could make cheaper solar cells last longer

Tandem solar cells based on perovskite semiconductors can convert sunlight into electricity more efficiently than conventional silicon solar cells.&nbsp;In order to bring this technology to market, stability and production processes must be further improved.&nbsp;Researchers from the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) as well as the Helmholtz Imaging platforms at the German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ) and Helmholtz AI have now found a way to predict the quality of the perovskite layers and thus the solar cells: using machine learning and new artificial methods Intelligence (AI) allows this to be recognized during production from variations in light emission.&nbsp;The team reports on the results from which improved production processes can be derived in Advanced Materials (DOI: 10.1002/adma.202307160).Perovskite tandem solar cells combine a perovskite with a conventional solar cell, for example based on silicon.&nbsp;They are considered next-generation technology because, with an efficiency of currently more than 33 percent, they are much more efficient than conventional silicon solar cells - with inexpensive starting materials and simple manufacturing methods.&nbsp;The prerequisite for achieving this level of efficiency is a very high-quality and extremely thin perovskite layer, which is only a fraction of the thickness of a human hair.&nbsp;“One of the biggest challenges is to produce these high-quality so-called multicrystalline thin films using cost-effective and scalable processes without defects and holes,” explains tenure-track professor Ulrich W. Paetzold from the Institute of Microstructure Technology and the Light Engineering Institute of KIT.&nbsp;Even under apparently perfect conditions in the laboratory, unknown influences lead to fluctuations in the quality of the semiconductor layers: “This ultimately prevents the rapid start of industrial production of these highly efficient solar cells, which we so urgently need for the energy transition,” says Paetzold.<h2>AI finds hidden signs of a good coating</h2>In order to find out which factors influence the coating, an interdisciplinary team of perovskite solar cell experts from KIT teamed up with machine learning and explainable artificial intelligence (XAI) specialists from Helmholtz Imaging (at the DKFZ in Heidelberg) and Helmholtz AI ( at KIT).&nbsp;The researchers have developed AI methods that train and analyze so-called neural networks using a large data set.&nbsp;The data set includes video recordings of the photoluminescence of the perovskite thin films during the manufacturing process.&nbsp;Photoluminescence refers to the radiant emission of the semiconductor layers after excitation by an external light source.&nbsp;“Since even experts couldn’t see anything remarkable on the thin films, the idea arose to train an AI for machine learning (deep learning) to find hidden indicators of a good or bad coating in the millions of data from the videos,” explain Lukas Klein and Sebastian Ziegler from Helmholtz Imaging at the DKFZ. &nbsp; In order to filter and analyze the very broad information provided by deep learning AI, the researchers subsequently used methods of explainable artificial intelligence.<h2>“Blueprint for follow-up research”</h2>The result: In the experiment, the researchers were able to see that the photoluminescence varies during production and this influences the coating quality. “What was crucial in our work was that we specifically used XAI methods to see which factors would have to change for a high-quality solar cell,” said Klein and Ziegler. That is usually not the case. Most of the time, XAI is only used as a kind of guardrail to avoid errors when building AI models: “This is a paradigm shift, and the fact that we can systematically gain highly relevant findings in materials science in this way is new.” Because the answer is based on the variation of the Photoluminescence enabled the researchers to go further. After appropriate training of the neural networks, the AI was able to predict whether the solar cell would achieve low or high efficiency, depending on when and what variation in light emission occurred during production. “These are extremely exciting results,” says Ulrich W. Paetzold. “Thanks to the combined use of AI, we have an idea of which adjustments we need to make first in order to improve production. We can carry out our experiments in a more targeted manner and no longer have to search for a needle in a haystack in the dark. This is a blueprint for follow-up research, including for many other aspects in energy research and materials science.”<hr><h3>Original publication</h3>Lukas Klein, Sebastian Ziegler, Felix Laufer, Charlotte Debus, Markus Götz, Klaus Maier-Hein, Ulrich W. Paetzold, Fabian Isensee, Paul F. Jäger: Discovering Process Dynamics for Scalable Perovskite Solar Cell Manufacturing with Explainable AI. Advanced Materials, 2023. DOI: 10.1002/adma.202307160

With the support of AI methods, researchers want to improve the manufacturing processes for highly efficient perovskite solar cells (Photo: Amadeus Bramsiepe, KIT)

Artificial intelligence methods show researchers the way to improved manufacturing processes for highly efficient solar cells - a blueprint for other research fields

AI for Perovskite Solar Cells: Key to Better Production

In this episode, we discuss a novel approach from ETH Zurich to remove a design bottleneck from solar reactors that enables power generation output that is 2X the current state of the art!

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