Space deployment comes with a series of significant engineering challenges for the electronic and electrical systems that are going to be utilised. Engineers must therefore specify components for their designs that have all the necessary properties – particularly in relation to coping with the harsh environments they are going to be situated in, alongside the acute size, weight and power (SWAP) constraints involved. In this article, we will look at exactly what this will entail and give a detailed use case example to illustrate the points raised too.<h2 dir="ltr">Unique aspects of the application setting</h2>Though this must still be adequately addressed, it is not actually space itself that poses the biggest threat to component reliability. Instead, it is the process of getting it there that is likely to be the problematic part. During launch, a rocket’s payload can easily be subjected to 4-5g accelerations. On top of that, there are certain to be intense vibrational forces experienced. There is the potential for hardware to be exposed to very high levels of heat too. Should any damage occur at this stage, then the space deployed equipment might not be able to carry out its assigned functions as intended and the mission will end up being a failure.&nbsp;Once the hardware is finally in orbit, there will be other considerations. Among the most prominent is the temperature cycling that components will have to deal with – going from severe cold when traversing the dark side of the Earth, followed by periods in the Sun’s harsh thermal radiation. Another consideration is whether the chosen components will be detrimentally affected by the vacuum of space. Outgassing means that chemical substances could be emitted from these components, due to seepage from cracks or internal gaps. This might result in delicate instrumentation in close proximity to them being impaired in some way by the presence of unwanted contaminants. Once again, the mission could be jeopardised, meaning that all the expense and engineering effort that had gone into it would count for nothing. &nbsp;&nbsp;<h2 dir="ltr">Sourcing interconnects for space&nbsp;</h2>The various factors just described make it very clear that the connectors and cabling being selected for space deployment must have superior operational characteristics. Consequently, it is vital that they are able to withstand prolonged mechanical stresses (in terms of both shock and vibration), as well as extreme temperatures. The remote nature of the application of course means that once deployed there is no opportunity to replace faulty interconnects. This is why chances cannot be taken on choosing anything other than a solution with the highest degrees of reliability and resilience to the most challenging of ambient environments.Having collaborated on a multitude of different projects in this sector over several decades, Harwin offers an extensive portfolio of space-qualified connectors and cables. Each of these has a heavy duty construction, so that prolonged reliability is assured. They can be provided with built-in shielding (both backshells and braids) to protect them from cosmic radiation.<h3 dir="ltr">Use case example</h3>A recent venture, on which Harwin worked with the Group of Astrodynamics for the Use of Space Systems&nbsp;(GAUSS), underlines the need for sourcing appropriate connectors and cabling. GAUSS is an established provider of microsatellite deployment solutions, as well as designing and manufacturing its own satellite hardware. The Italian company’s UNISAT platform enables the in-orbit-release of third-party pico/nano-satellites, with numerous CubeSats and PocketQubes being carried into space on each mission and then getting deployed directly from a purpose-built spacecraft. This approach has made it much more convenient and cost-effective for academic research groups to undertake space-based experiments and monitoring work, as they can reduce the upfront expense normally associated with ‘rideshare’ activities.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1729852467851-wendy-1.jpg" style="width: 832px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Figure 1: The UNISAT-7 pico/nano-satellite deployment platform from GAUSS (images courtesy of Gauss Srl)When the GAUSS team embarked upon the development of their latest UNISAT spacecraft, there were some key objectives that they wanted to achieve. The most important of these was to be able to expand the payload capacity. This would mean that a greater quantity of CubeSats and PocketQubes could be deployed. The engineering team at GAUSS looked at ways that they could make UNISAT-7 construction more lightweight than the previous models, so more of the assigned launch mass could be taken up by the payload.&nbsp;For it to be accommodated in the rocket, the UNISAT-7 spacecraft’s overall volume had to be kept as low as possible. Its total launch mass had to be kept down to no more than 32kg. All of the constituent electronics would be contained within an aerospace-grade aluminium honeycomb framework of 50mm x 50mm x 50mm dimensions. This would have carbon fibre sheets attached to it. The spacecraft’s power would be generated by banks of photovoltaic panels mounted onto its exterior.&nbsp;<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1729852521555-wendy+3.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Figure 2: View of rocket used to deploy multiple satellites (image courtesy of GK Launch Services)Given that the UNISAT-7 needed to remain operational for up to 5 years, the ongoing integrity of the interconnect technology had to be beyond doubt. After sampling and testing connectors from a variety of different manufacturers, GAUSS engineers decided that going with units featured in the Harwin Datamate series would be the best tactic. Datamate and Datamate Mix-Tek connectors have shown themselves to be very effective when used in spaceborne equipment. These high-reliability (Hi-Rel) components are robust enough to cope with the difficult conditions posed by space launches. They can withstand 20G vibrations and 100G shocks, plus up to 125°C temperature levels. Their compact form factor means that they take up only minimal board space, leaving plenty of room for other devices.The 4-finger Beryllium Copper contacts incorporated into Harwin Datamate connectors allow them to always maintain a connection with their corresponding mating surfaces. The contacts in a standard Datamate mating pair carry up to 3A of current, while Datamate Mix-Tek contacts are 40A rated. The advanced locking features employed mean that industry-leading interconnect retention is attained.The low outgassing that these connectors exhibit is another important benefit. For instance, the moulded plastic used in them has a 1.01% total mass loss (TML) and a collected volatile condensable material (CVCM) figure of less than 0.01% when placed in the vacuum of space.Complementing their low profile, the availability of right-angle configuration Datamate versions addresses limited gaps between PCBs in space hardware designs. It means that connectors can be positioned at the edge of these PCBs, thereby avoiding the need for cabling to reach further into these boards. The upshot is that cables and connectors are much easier to access when the hardware is being assembled. Furthermore, cables do not need to be bent to such great angles – with less chance of them breaking in the process. &nbsp;Having been successfully trialled out by GAUSS, the selected Harwin connectors would play an integral role in the communication and data processing elements of the UNISAT-7, allowing all the related data to be transported. They would also prove essential to the spacecraft’s power systems.&nbsp;<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1729852579004-wendy+4.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Figure 3: Connectors visible in the PCB stack of a small satellite (image courtesy of Gauss Srl)<h2>Conclusion</h2>Space hardware must be able to rely on the quality of interconnect technology that has been specified for it. Any cutting of corners here could lead to projects that may have taken years to prepare for and large amounts of money to fund falling short of the goals that they were originally set and not meeting expectations. That is why engaging with an expert in this area is definitely advised. This will mean the connectors and cabling can be recommended that are fully optimised for such purposes.

Space deployment presents significant engineering challenges for electronic and electrical systems, requiring engineers to specify components with properties suited to harsh environments and acute size, weight, and power (SWAP) constraints.

Implementing Effective Interconnects into Space System Designs

GPS is a critical tool in modern society, and there’s more that can be done to improve the coverage, safety, and security of the technology. | iStock/aapsky

An expert in global positioning technologies looks ahead to expand GPS’s capabilities to the moon and, perhaps, beyond.

The Future of GPS: Innovations and Impacts on Navigation

On 5 September 2024 at 03:50 CEST (22:50 local time), the new Sentinel-2C satellite was successfully launched from Kourou, French Guiana, aboard the last Vega rocket in its original configuration.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1726012698757-image-2000-9ce0a3184832e9d2b679e4ad8caf68f9.jpeg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">The Sentinel-2C satellite is lifted out of its transport container at Europe’s Spaceport in Kourou, French Guiana&nbsp; Sentinel-2C is equipped with an optical multispectral instrument with a high resolution of up to 10 metres, that scans a swath 290 kilometres wide. This makes the satellite ideally suited for detecting changes in vegetation, compiling crop forecasts, mapping forests and determining the growth of wild and cultivated plants. The instrument is also used to monitor algae growth in coastal and inland waters, for example, as well as track sediment input in river deltas. Credit: ESA-CNES-ARIANESPACE/Optique vidéo du CSG–S. MartinThe Sentinel-2 mission consists of two identical satellites in the same Earth orbit. They complete one full orbit every 100 minutes, capturing all land surfaces as well as inland and coastal waters every five days. Sentinel-2C now replaces Sentinel-2A, which has been in space since 2015, making the satellite a crucial component in the long-term data provision for numerous applications.&nbsp;In Germany, the Federal Ministry for Digital and Transport (BMDV) is the principal authority responsible for Copernicus. The German Space Agency at DLR (Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt) supports the European Earth observation programme on behalf of the BMDV at the European level and promotes its utilisation in Germany through specific measures. The Sentinel-2C satellite was built by Airbus in Germany.Sentinel-2C is equipped with an optical multispectral instrument offering a high resolution of up to 10 metres and scanning a swath 290 kilometres wide. This makes the satellite ideally suited for detecting changes in vegetation, enabling crop forecasting, mapping forests and determining the growth of wild and cultivated plants. The instrument is also used to monitor algae growth in coastal and inland waters, as well as track sediment input in river deltas.<h2>Researching climate change, improving disaster protection</h2>The data collected by Copernicus is crucial for researching and monitoring climate change, as well as supporting key areas such as disaster management and security policy. The data also serves as a foundation for significant international agreements on environmental and climate protection, for example as part of the United Nations (UN) Climate Change Conferences and Sustainable Development Goals.Volker Wissing, Germany's Federal Minister for Digital and Transport emphasises the programme's range of applications: "With the launch of Sentinel-2C, Germany is demonstrating its leading role in global Earth observation. Its innovative instrument will play a crucial role in understanding climate change, combating it and dealing with its consequences. Our commitment to the Copernicus programme is an investment in cutting-edge technology and a sustainable future, as the satellite's precise data will support decision-makers worldwide in environmental policy measures."Walther Pelzer, DLR Executive Board Member and Director General of the German Space Agency at DLR, adds, "Copernicus is the largest and most successful Earth observation programme in Europe today, demonstrating the efficient cooperation between the European Union, European Space Agency (ESA) and national space agencies. With Sentinel-2C, we are securing its future and at the same time strengthening Germany's lasting position in the space sector."<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1726012832312-ezgif-7-5fa2653c65.png" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Snow and a calving glacier in Greenland&nbsp; This Sentinel-2 image shows an icy glacier tongue extending into a fjord (left). The mountainous landscape of northern Greenland is only partially covered by snow and ice, with ice floes breaking off from the glacier and floating on the water. Also clearly visible are the brownish, sediment-rich tributaries flowing into the fjord (right side of image). Due to the low position of the Sun at these high latitudes, even in summer, dark mountain shadows can be seen (left side of the image). Monitoring snow and ice masses is crucial for understanding climate change and predicting potential sea level changes. The image was captured on 21 July 2024. Credit: European Union, Copernicus Sentinel-2<h2>Copernicus – an EU and ESA partnership</h2>Copernicus is a collaborative initiative between the European Union (EU) and the European Space Agency (ESA). Through Copernicus, the EU operates satellite-based information services for land (CLMS), oceans (CMEMS), atmosphere (CAMS), disaster and crisis management (CEMS), climate change (C3S) and civil security (CSS). An increasing number of German government agencies, researchers and innovative companies are also working with Copernicus data. The foundation of these applications and services lies in six satellite constellations, known as the Sentinels – meaning 'guardians' – operated by ESA in collaboration with the European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT). In addition, a further six missions are currently being prepared, which will gradually expand the Copernicus fleet over the coming years. Among these is the Copernicus Anthropogenic Carbon Dioxide Monitoring Mission (CO2M), set to measure global greenhouse gas emissions from 2026 onwards. Copernicus also integrates satellite data from third parties, including from the German satellites TerraSAR-X and TanDEM-X. Data portals such as the Copernicus Data and Exploitation Platform – DE (CODE-DE for short) ensure users have easy access to Earth observation data and processing tools.

On 5 September 2024 at 03:50 CEST (22:50 local time), the new Sentinel-2C satellite was successfully launched from Kourou, French Guiana, aboard the last Vega rocket in its original configuration. Sentinel-2C is equipped to recognise changes in vegetation, enabling crop forecasting, forest mapping and determining the growth of wild and cultivated plants, as well as monitoring algae growth in coastal and inland waters, as well as tracking sediment input in river deltas. Credit: ESA–S. Corvaja 

On 5 September 2024 at 03:50 CEST (22:50 local time), the new Copernicus Sentinel-2C satellite was launched from Kourou, French Guiana. Sentinel-2C is the third of four Sentinel-2 satellites and will replace Sentinel-2A, which is now almost ten years old.

A new era for Copernicus: the Sentinel-2C satellite launches

The Arctic Weather Satellite (AWS), an Earth observation mission, was launched on 16 August 2024 at 20:56 CEST (11:56 local time) on a Falcon 9 rocket from the Vandenberg Space Force Base in California. First contact with the satellite was made at 03:06 CEST on 17 August.The small satellite, with a total mass of just 150 kilograms, is starting its one-year mission. It uses a passive microwave radiometer to measure temperature and humidity profiles in the Arctic – a region where data has been insufficient for precise short-term weather forecasts.The data gathered by AWS will significantly enhance short- and medium-term weather forecasting in the northern polar regions. Given the significant influence of Arctic weather on global patterns, this data will also contribute to more accurate global weather forecasting.There is considerable interest in Germany and across Europe in using the data, as improved weather forecasts in the polar region will lead to significant improvements in forecasts on the European continent, particularly for prolonged periods of heat and cold.AWS is a precursor to the EPS Sterna satellite constellation, which is being developed by the European Space Agency (ESA) on behalf of the European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT). EPS Sterna will comprise three generations of six small satellites in three Earth orbits, delivering precise weather data from the polar regions over the long term. The constellation will complement existing satellite systems such as MetOp-SG from EUMETSAT and JPSS from the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).AWS will demonstrate the functionality of the satellite and its instruments, as well the benefits in terms of cost- and time-efficiency of the 'New Space' approach.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1725000886169-ezgif-5-c65039f59f.png" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">AWS was launched on 16 August 2024 at 20:56 CEST (11:56 local time) on a Falcon 9 rocket from the Vandenberg Space Force Base in California. First contact was made at 03:06 CEST on 17 August. Credit: SpaceX<h2>Fast, cost-effective and future-proof with German technology</h2>AWS was developed with completely new methods in order to achieve results cost effectively and on schedule, in line with the New Space approach. In particular, technical requirements and testing procedures were significantly simplified, leading to the completion of the satellite just 36 months after ESA awarded the contract to the main contractor, OHB Sweden. The project remained remarkably cost efficient throughout.Walther Pelzer, German Aerospace Center (Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt; DLR) Executive Board Member and Director General of the German Space Agency at DLR, highlights the project's significance for the German economy and research community: "I am very pleased that we can strengthen Germany as a space centre with AWS. German research institutions and medium-sized space companies have played a major role in the satellite's development. The planned production of a total of 20 satellites as part of the EPS Sterna programme will result in numerous contracts for German SMEs in the long term."Germany is contributing around 18 percent of AWS's costs through ESA, funded by the Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Climate Action (BMWK). The EPS Sterna constellation will be operated by EUMETSAT and funded by the Federal Ministry for Digital and Transport (BMDV)."ESA has succeeded in developing a proto-flight model of the AWS in a very short time, demonstrating its operational readiness ahead of a potential future EUMETSAT programme. This showcases the ways satellites can be successfully and efficiently developed with the help of New Space approaches. This innovation ecosystem is precisely what we aim to advance with our space strategy," says Anna Christmann, Federal Government Coordinator of German Aerospace Policy.Stefan Schnorr, State Secretary at BMDV, adds: "The new Earth observation satellite will provide us with more detailed insights than ever before into climatic developments in the Arctic – a region that is significantly impacted by climate change. AWS represents cutting-edge technology that sets new standards. The satellite will help further improve weather forecasts in Germany and Europe."The German Space Agency at DLR is coordinating the German contributions to ESA's efforts.

As the name suggests, the Arctic Weather Satellite (AWS) is designed to improve weather forecasting in the Arctic – a region currently lacking data for accurate short-term forecasts. AWS is equipped with a 19-channel, cross-track microwave radiometer that provides high-resolution humidity and temperature measurements of the atmosphere in all weather conditions. Credit: ESA/Mlabspace

The Arctic Weather Satellite (AWS) was launched on 16 August 2024 at 20:56 CEST (11:56 local time) aboard a Falcon 9 rocket from the Vandenberg Space Force Base in California. First contact with the satellite was made at 03:06 CEST on 17 August.

The next generation of weather satellites: Arctic Weather Satellite launches

An autonomous robot – a base on wheels fitted with computer vision technology that snaps images of grapevines in near real-time – rolls down a long row of plants in a vineyard at Cornell AgriTech in Geneva, New York.The <a href="https://news.cornell.edu/stories/2022/11/autonomous-robots-help-modernize-grape-wine-industry" target="_blank">Cornell-developed “PhytoPatholoBot”</a> detects spectral signatures of three kinds of devastating grape diseases – powdery mildew, downy mildew and grapevine leafroll virus – leading to early management of pathogens without needing farmworkers to spot them. Ultimately, data collected by such robots will help to ground-truth NASA satellite data that could one day detect plant diseases from space.This was one of many research projects presented at a technology demonstration on Aug. 20, part of a three-day “Space for Ag Tour” by NASA leaders to better understand the remote sensing needs of Cornell AgriTech researchers, specialty crop growers and local stakeholders. NASA leadership visited Cornell’s main campus, Cornell AgriTech, sites in Niagara county and the Cornell Lake Erie Research and Extension Lab in Portland, New York.The tour was designed to foster two-way dialogue with growers and stakeholders to improve NASA Earth Science’s Earth-observing satellites and instruments for specialty crop agriculture and viticulture and foster a broader conversation about how to effectively translate research into practice.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1724648875297-0822_nasa1_0.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Yu Jiang poses with the PhytoPatholoBotas and UV light robot as part of the “Space for Ag Tour” at the Cornell Agritech campus. Ryan Young/Cornell University“My hope is that by having this Space for Ag Tour here, by showing them New York viticulture as well as what we have to offer here at Cornell, it can help grow the specialty crop footprint within NASA as well as their footprint in pest and disease research,” said&nbsp;<a href="https://cals.cornell.edu/kaitlin-gold" target="_blank">Katie Gold</a>, the event’s main organizer and an assistant professor and the Susan Ekert Lynch Faculty Fellow in the Plant Pathology and Plant-Microbe Biology Section of the School of Integrative Plant Science (SIPS) at Cornell AgriTech, which is in the College of Agriculture and Life Sciences.&nbsp;“I think there’s amazing potential for the satellite data that’s being collected both now and in the future with the eventual launch of the Surface Biology and Geology satellite to be applied to specialty crops,” said Gold, who is an expert on ground-based and remote plant disease sensing and applied grape pathology. The meetings were intended to raise awareness among NASA leaders and scientists of the unique challenges facing specialty crops, including pests and diseases, so they can make those connections in their own research and applications, she said. &nbsp;“For NASA leadership, it’s an opportunity as they think long-term about observational needs and priorities that helps them make the case for the observations that are necessary, from a scientific perspective, to make an impact on the different concerns that farmers have,” said Alyssa Whitcraft, a research professor in the Department of Geographical Sciences at the University of Maryland, whose work focuses on satellite remote sensing of agriculture. Whitcraft is the founding executive director of NASA Acres and co-founding deputy director of NASA Harvest, respectively the U.S. and international NASA consortia on food security and agriculture.&nbsp;Gold is the institutional lead for&nbsp;<a href="https://cals.cornell.edu/news/2023/05/bringing-nasa-technology-down-earth-agriculture" target="_blank">NASA Acres at Cornell</a>.As part of the demonstrations,&nbsp;<a href="https://cals.cornell.edu/yun-yang" target="_blank">Yun Yang</a>, assistant professor in SIPS’ Soil and Crop Sciences Section at Cornell AgriTech, described her NASA Acres-funded research to monitor plant water use using remote sensing, and understanding the impacts of agricultural practices on water resource sustainability.One of Yang’s research projects seeks to estimate water loss to evaporation and transpiration in California vineyards. Vineyard managers want to know how much and when to irrigate in spring based on groundwater depletion, which is a global issue, especially in California.&nbsp;Her team built an instrument to better monitor water fluxes on the ground, which provides validation for NASA Landsat satellite data that can be used to estimate water loss to evapotranspiration when farmers irrigate. By knowing how much water is used, based on a simple water balance, they can tell how much water is needed. Yang’s team has been developing a dashboard for users. “With this dashboard, we can really hand the technology we have to the growers,” Yang said. “And when they are in the field, we can easily check the information and help them manage irrigation.” &nbsp; &nbsp;Applied roboticist <a href="https://cals.cornell.edu/yu-jiang" target="_blank">Yu Jiang</a>, assistant professor in SIPS’ Horticulture Section at Cornell AgriTech, demonstrated the PhytoPatholoBot that he and doctoral student Ertai Liu developed with Gold with funding from NASA Acres and U.S. Department of Agriculture National Institute of Food and Agriculture VitisGen3.&nbsp;The PhytoPatholoBot eliminates background noise from cloud cover or sunlight to provide a constant, high-quality image and has autonomous navigation using GPS. The bot provides a readout per row of vines with red areas denoting higher infection and white areas showing lower infection, and coupled with AI, allows for near real-time inferences of disease that growers may use to focus their treatment efforts on plants that need it most.“We can scan and scale all the field, we are also generating the results that are ready to be realized by the growers, and hopefully, while working together to integrate this data stream back to NASA to see if we can train remote sensing models and make a bigger impact for small grower stakeholders,” Jiang said. Additionally, researchers can use data from the robots to train NASA airborne sensing better than humans, Gold said.&nbsp;The hope is to use robots to automate data collection, to make it possible to gather measurements for millions of acres.&nbsp;Following Jiang,&nbsp;<a href="https://cals.cornell.edu/sara-emery" target="_blank">Sarah Emery</a>, assistant professor of entomology at Cornell AgriTech, presented her work to develop risk maps for spotted lanternfly infestations, a growing threat to grape and other growers in New York.&nbsp;“We’ve been trying to understand how this insect pest is going to be moving across the landscape and develop a model to assess the risk to individual vineyards across New York state,” Emery said.&nbsp;In collaboration with the New York State Department of Agriculture and Markets, the model being developed will overlay observations of spotted lanternfly (90,000 sightings have been recorded across the state) with maps of vineyards and locations of its preferred host, tree of heaven. Eventually, they plan to create a public-facing system so that growers can input their information and get back a level of risk.&nbsp;The hope is to use hyperspectral data (which allows for the identification of objects and materials by analyzing their unique spectral signatures) from satellites to identify light reflectance patterns of non-crop plants across the landscape to create risk maps at finer and wider scales. Emery has teamed with Gold and doctoral student Jaclyn Eller for the project.&nbsp;Also,&nbsp;<a href="https://cals.cornell.edu/jason-londo" target="_blank">Jason Londo</a>,&nbsp;associate professor of fruit crop physiology and climate adaptation in SIPS Horticulture Section at Cornell AgriTech, described using hyperspectral and multispectral approaches to understanding plant stress in grapes and apples using drones. He hopes to one day use similar data from satellites, but needs better resolution to be able to detect stress on a tree-by-tree basis, he said.Other visiting NASA personnel included Karen St. Germain, division director of the Earth Science Division in the Science Mission Directorate at NASA.&nbsp;<a href="https://cals.cornell.edu/steven-wolf" target="_blank">Steven Wolf</a>, associate professor of natural resources and the environment in CALS, organized events at Cornell’s Ithaca campus.

Members of Yu Jiang’s team demonstrate the technology. Credits: Ryan Young/Cornell University

An autonomous robot – a base on wheels fitted with computer vision technology that snaps images of grapevines in near real-time – rolls down a long row of plants in a vineyard at Cornell AgriTech in Geneva, New York.

From space to farm: readying NASA satellites to help growers

Nearly 15 years ago, a relatively small spacecraft about the size of a polar bear launched into space with a big mission: to map the entire sky at infrared wavelengths with a sensitivity up to hundreds of thousands of times better than previous surveys. The NASA mission, called <a href="https://www.ipac.caltech.edu/project/wise" target="_blank">WISE</a> (Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer), far exceeded expectations, scanning the skies not once but twice and leaving behind a massive trove of data covering more than 740 million asteroids, stars, galaxies, and other cosmic objects. Ultimately, the telescope ran out of the coolant needed to chill its sensitive infrared detectors and was put into hibernation in 2011.<iframe width="640" height="360" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/_ay0iJYabcc?&amp;wmode=opaque&amp;rel=0&amp;enablejsapi=1&amp;origin=https://www.wevolver.com" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="" class="fr-draggable" data-lf-form-tracking-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-yt-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-vimeo-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true"></iframe>This video celebrates the legacy of NASA's NEOWISE mission, which has retired after more than a decade of discovering, tracking, and characterizing near-Earth objects.But that was not the end of the story for the little telescope that busted open the infrared skies. After WISE's coolant ran out and it warmed up, two of the spacecraft's four infrared-wavelength bands still worked—bands that exceled at finding faint near-Earth asteroids and comets. So, in 2013, after nearly three years of hibernation, NASA woke WISE back up. The spacecraft was given a new name—<a href="https://neowise.ipac.caltech.edu/" target="_blank">NEOWISE</a> (Near-Earth Object Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer)—and a new goal: to aid planetary defense by surveying and studying asteroids and comets that stray close to our neck of the solar system."I remember a bunch of us huddling around a terminal in 2009 as the first WISE images came in," says Roc Cutri, lead scientist and task lead for NEOWISE at Caltech's IPAC astronomy center. "And then I remember doing the same thing when NEOWISE turned back on in 2013. We were thrilled all over again."<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1723854091746-NextLight-WEB.max-500x500.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Team members crowd around a computer to watch the first NEOWISE images come in, after the spacecraft was reactivated in 2013. Amy Mainzer can be seen looking at the screen, with Roc Cutri to the right and Beth Fabinksy below. Davy Kirkpatrick is in the foreground and Tim Conrow is behind the computer screen. Credit: Elaine CutriNow, those enduring infrared eyes, which faithfully scanned the entire sky a whopping 23 times and observed more than 190,000 solar system objects, have closed for good. Solar activity is causing NEOWISE to fall out of orbit. Explosive flares and other eruptions on our Sun cause Earth's upper atmosphere to heat up and expand, which has slowed the satellite down."The Sun is waking up again after being quiet for a long time," says Cutri, referring to our Sun's current solar maximum. "We appreciate the cooperation of the Sun because it's given NEOWISE more time to operate, but the spacecraft is destined to reenter our atmosphere and burn up." Mission specialists say this is likely to occur near the end of this year.Teams at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), which manages the mission, and Caltech's IPAC, the center responsible for data processing and archiving, are now preparing for the mission's end. On July 31 of this year, the spacecraft stopped collecting images of the sky. After collecting the final images and returning the spacecraft to hibernation, NEOWISE engineers at JPL issued a final command to turn off the transmitter on August 8."This is a bittersweet moment. It's sad to see this trailblazing mission come to an end, but we know there's more treasure hiding in the survey data," said Joe Masiero, NEOWISE's deputy principal investigator and a scientist at IPAC, in a <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasas-neowise-celebrates-10-years-plans-end-of-mission" target="_blank">JPL news story</a>. "NEOWISE has a vast archive, covering a very long period of time, that will inevitably advance the science of the infrared universe long after the spacecraft is gone."During its decade-plus run, NEOWISE captured nearly 27 million infrared images. It discovered 215 near-Earth objects and observed thousands more (NEOs are defined as asteroids and comets that pass within 28 million miles of Earth's path around the Sun). In addition to near-Earth asteroids, it found tens of thousands of asteroids in the main belt between Mars and Jupiter.The mission spotted <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasas-wise-finds-earths-first-trojan-asteroid" target="_blank">Earth's first known Trojan asteroid</a>, which is an asteroid that rides along in the same orbit as our planet, and it discovered the celebrated <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/resource/comet-c2020-f3-neowise-over-utah/" target="_blank">comet C/2020 F3 NEOWISE</a>, which adorned the night skies for onlookers in the Northern Hemisphere in the summer of 2020.What's more, the mission's legacy will live on in a new mission currently in development. NASA's <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/near-earth-object-surveyor" target="_blank">NEO Surveyor</a> (Near-Earth Object Surveyor), scheduled to launch in late 2027, will be the first purpose-built infrared space telescope dedicated to hunting hazardous near-Earth objects."When I first started working on the original WISE mission in 2003, it was clear that it would teach us a lot about asteroids and comets, but it wouldn't be able to see huge numbers of Earth-approaching near-Earth objects," says Amy Mainzer, a professor at UCLA and the principal investigator of both NEOWISE and NEO Surveyor. "We've leveraged what we've learned from WISE and its extension, NEOWISE, to develop a new mission, NEO Surveyor, that is optimized for finding the most dangerous asteroids and comets. While we're getting ready to say goodbye to NEOWISE, we're looking forward to getting its powerful successor up into space in a few years."<h2 data-block-key="18mj">Early Days</h2>Originally proposed as the Next Generation Sky Survey, WISE was selected for flight in 2004 and given its current name. It was designed to succeed past infrared sky surveys with a dramatically improved level of sensitivity, and to ultimately unveil hundreds of millions of hidden cosmic objects that had never been seen before.Infrared light, which has longer wavelengths than visible light, is invisible to our eyes. Our bodies are aglow with infrared light that we can't see. Many objects in the cosmos—asteroids, comets, cool stars, dusty planetary disks of debris, remote galaxies, and powerful quasars—shine brightly in infrared light but remain faint and hard to see in visible light. These objects tend to be older, cooler, obscured in dust, or hiding in the remote universe. Infrared surveys of the sky allow us to cast a wide net and catch these cosmic wonders.Caltech's first infrared sky survey, called the Two-Micron Sky Survey, scanned the skies from a telescope atop Mount Wilson in the late 1960s. The Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS) followed next, surveying the skies in infrared light from space in 1983. Later, from 1997 to 2001, the Two Micron All-Sky Survey (2MASS) mapped the whole sky from the ground. Caltech and IPAC, including the so-called <a href="https://www.caltech.edu/about/news/celebrating-50-years-infrared-astronomy-48629" target="_blank">Infrared Army</a>, a group of scientists who pioneered infrared astronomy, played a key role in these groundbreaking projects."Caltech has a great history in infrared astronomy, so it was natural for us to be involved in WISE," says Cutri, who remembers working on WISE mission proposals in the late 1990s with the mission's principal investigator, Ned Wright, an astronomy professor at UCLA.<h2 data-block-key="dpcgs">Rare Gems</h2>The two defining goals of the WISE mission were to find the closest stars to the Sun as well as the most luminous galaxies in the universe, both of which it achieved. In 2013 and 2014, astronomer Kevin Luhman of Penn State University used data collected by WISE to discover the <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/closest-star-system-found-in-a-century" target="_blank">third</a>- and the <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasas-spitzer-wise-find-suns-close-cold-neighbor" target="_blank">fourth</a>-closest star systems to Earth, lying 6.5 and 7.2 light-years away, respectively. Both systems contain cool stars known as brown dwarfs, and the fourth closest star, called WISE 0855-0714, also happens to be <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasas-spitzer-wise-find-suns-close-cold-neighbor" target="_blank">the coldest known brown dwarf</a> with temperatures nearly as cold as ice.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1723854129495-First-Brown-Dwarf-WEB.max-500x500.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Peter Eisenhardt, Davy Kirkpatrick, and Ned Wright happily inspect the first spectroscopically confirmed brown dwarf discovered by WISE. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/Beth FabinskyIn total, the mission found more than half of the known 582 brown dwarfs in our solar neighborhood, or specifically within 65 light-years of the Sun. (Nearly 20 percent of those 582 brown dwarfs were found by citizen scientists using WISE/NEOWISE data in a program called <a href="https://www.zooniverse.org/projects/marckuchner/backyard-worlds-planet-9" target="_blank">Backyard Worlds</a>.) Before WISE, little was known about these celestial orbs, which form like stars but lack the mass to sustain the fusion that powers stars. The first brown dwarf was discovered in 1994 by a team led by Caltech's Shri Kulkarni using the 60-inch telescope at Palomar Observatory."We knew WISE was looking at the right infrared wavelength to bust the field open," says Davy Kirkpatrick, the IPAC lead for the WISE/NEOWISE quality assurance team and a WISE science team member.Kirkpatrick remembers well the day he first laid eyes on <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasas-wise-mission-discovers-coolest-class-of-stars" target="_blank">the coolest class of brown dwarfs</a>, called Y dwarfs. Previously, these extra-feeble stars had only been theorized."Mike Cushing [an astronomer at the University of Toledo] and I rented a condo in Hawai'i near the Keck telescope to follow up on brown dwarfs identified by WISE," Kirkpatrick recalls. "I was reducing a good-looking spectrum, and then my mouth just hung open. The chemical signatures of the first Y dwarf were right there. I yelled, 'Mike come here, we got one!' and he came running over."Since then, the mission has discovered a total of 50 Y dwarfs, some of which were found during the NEOWISE phase of the mission (NEOWISE primarily focuses on asteroids and comets, but its data have also been used in a range of astronomy studies).<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1723854154435-06-WISE-YDwarf-PIA14720-WEB.max-1000x1000.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Artist's concept of a Y dwarf. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/R. HurtFarther from home, <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasas-wise-survey-uncovers-millions-of-black-holes" target="_blank">WISE uncovered tens of millions of actively feeding supermassive black holes</a>, also known as quasars (Caltech's <a href="https://www.caltech.edu/about/news/caltech-mourns-the-passing-of-maarten-schmidt-1929-2022" target="_blank">Maarten Schmidt</a> discovered the first quasar in 1963). These monstrous cosmic entities are often buried in dust, rendering them invisible to optical telescopes. But the growing black holes warm their cloaks of dust, causing them to glow at the infrared wavelengths seen by WISE."WISE has shown that many, and perhaps most, quasars are buried in smoky cocoons," says Peter Eisenhardt, project scientist for WISE at JPL. "Our largest catalogs of quasars now come from WISE." Among these objects are rare and particularly warm and bright ones nicknamed hot DOGs, for hot Dust-Obscured Galaxies. One of these is likely the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasas-wise-spacecraft-discovers-most-luminous-galaxy-in-universe/#:~:text=The%20new%20study%20reports%20a,incredible%20outpouring%20of%20infrared%20light." target="_blank">most luminous galaxy ever seen</a>, shining with the light of 350 trillion suns."IRAS showed us that the most powerful nearby galaxies shine brightest in the infrared because they contain a lot of dust," Eisenhardt says. "As soon as we began mapping the sky with WISE, we tried all kinds of ways to find the most luminous galaxies in the universe with its four infrared bands, but we weren't finding much. Then, in April of 2010, we came across an extremely powerful galaxy that showed up only in WISE's two longest wavelengths: the first hot DOG. We adopted that technique and six months later found the most luminous galaxy of them all."<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1723854176958-Most_Luminous_galaxy.max-1000x1000.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">This artist's impression shows galaxy WISE J224607.55-052634.9, likely the most luminous galaxy ever discovered. Credit: (NRAO/AUI/NSF) S. DagnelloIn addition to Y dwarfs, quasars, and hot DOGs, the WISE and NEOWISE catalogs are being used by astronomers around the world to study everything from comets and asteroids to distant clusters of galaxies. "WISE and NEOWISE data are now part of the astronomy landscape and are being used in over a thousand papers per year," Eisenhardt says.<h2 data-block-key="9aof1">Surprise Asteroid Hunter</h2>When mission specialists turned the spacecraft back on in 2013, they did not expect it would still be going strong more than 10 years later. A mission designed to survey the whole breadth of the cosmos both near and far will be remembered for a decade of asteroid discoveries.Thanks to NEOWISE's infrared vision, it will also be remembered for revealing a population of near-Earth objects that are extremely dark, like pieces of charcoal, and large, measuring hundreds of meters across, and in some cases larger. The mission's observations showed that such objects constitute a sizeable part of the overall NEO population."The dark objects make up a substantial fraction of the population, roughly a third, posing a challenge for ground-based telescopes searching for them in visible light" Mainzer says. "But they pop out in heat-sensitive infrared wavelengths."To find more of these hidden dark rocks orbiting in our solar system as well as many other asteroids left to uncover, the NEOWISE team developed the upcoming&nbsp;<a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/near-earth-object-surveyor" target="_blank">NEO Surveyor</a>."One of the goals for NEO Surveyor is to find the medium-size asteroids, which could still be hazardous to our planet," Cutri says. According to NASA, only 44 percent of these medium-size asteroids (140 meters and larger) have been found. "The motto has been to find them before they find us."Like NEOWISE, NEO Surveyor's background data will also be used to study stars, galaxies, and other cosmic objects throughout the universe."When we started in the late '90s on this mission, if you told me that this spacecraft would still be taking data when I turned 60, and that we'd be working on a successor to the mission, I would have said, 'You are nuts,'" says Kirkpatrick, who plans to use the mission's data to look for even closer and cooler brown dwarfs than those discovered by WISE. "If anything, WISE and NEOWISE have taught us that just when you think you have reached the limit of what you can find, it is just the limit of the survey. More is out there to be found."<h2 data-block-key="37ubl">More about the Mission:</h2>NEOWISE and NEO Surveyor support the objectives of NASA's Planetary Defense Coordination Office (PDCO) at NASA Headquarters in Washington. The NASA Authorization Act of 2005 directed NASA to discover and characterize at least 90% of the near-Earth objects more than 140 meters (460 feet) across that come within 30 million miles (48 million kilometers) of our planet's orbit. Objects of this size can cause significant regional damage, or worse, should they impact the Earth.JPL manages and operates the NEOWISE mission for PDCO within the Science Mission Directorate. The WISE principal investigator was Edward Wright, a professor at UCLA. The NEOWISE principal investigator is Amy Mainzer, also a professor at UCLA. The Space Dynamics Laboratory in Logan, Utah, built the science instrument. Ball Aerospace &amp; Technologies Corp. of Boulder, Colorado (now BAE Systems), built the spacecraft. Science data processing, archiving, and distribution is done at IPAC at Caltech. Caltech manages JPL for NASA.

NEOWISE's enduring infrared eyes, which faithfully scanned the entire sky a whopping 23 times and observed more than 190,000 solar system objects, have closed for good

NASA's Infrared Survey Telescope Ready to Retire

Supplementary information related to <a href="https://article.murata.com/en-eu/article/multiplexing-and-multiple-access-1" target="_blank">FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA Multiple Access (1)</a> is presented below.<h2>&lt; Column &gt; How Multiplexing Works: FDM, TDM, and CDM</h2>A number of types of multiplexing are used for wireless communication, and the following are some of the most common:• Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) • Time-division multiplexing (TDM) • Code-division multiplexing (CDM)Figures 7-1, 7-2, and 7-3 are conceptual diagrams of these multiplexing techniques, with a focus on the transmission path portions enclosed in red dashed lines.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1722839179083-img0012-en.png" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Figure 7-1: Conceptual Diagram of Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM)<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1722839190979-img0013-en.png" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Figure 7-2: Conceptual Diagram of Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1722839204356-img0014-en.png" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Figure 7-3: Conceptual Diagram of Code-Division Multiplexing (CDM)<h3 id="isPasted">Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM)</h3>Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is a multiplexing technology that assigns multiple data streams to different frequency bands, and transmits the frequency bands as channels simultaneously via a single transmission path.Figure 7-1 shows a general conceptual diagram of FDM. On the sending side, the frequency bands assigned to the multiple data streams are treated as channels, which are sent via a single transmission path using multiplexing. On the receiving side, the transmitted data streams are extracted by devices capable of selecting specific frequency bands. An example of the use of FDM for wireless communication is terrestrial digital television broadcasting in Japan. There is a single transmission path, the air, and signals containing image and audio data are broadcast from multiple television stations on different frequencies. On the receiving side, the user can view TV shows of their choice by selecting specific frequencies. FDM is also used for analog radio broadcasting.<h3>Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)</h3>Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a multiplexing technology that divides up multiple data streams into time intervals assigned as channels, and transmits them on the same frequency via a single transmission path.Figure 7-2 shows a general conceptual diagram of TDM. On the sending side, multiple data streams from a device are divided into time slots and assigned to channels, which are sent via a single transmission path using multiplexing. On the receiving side, by dividing up the channels using the same timing as the sending, the transmitted data can be received by multiple devices. An example of the use of TDM for wireless communication is television broadcasting in Europe and North America.<h3>Code-Division Multiplexing (CDM)</h3>Code-division multiplexing (CDM) is a multiplexing technology that mixes with the data unique identifier codes for each device, combines the signals in a single frequency band, and then transmits the combined signals simultaneously via a single transmission path.Figure 7-3 shows how CDM works. The data is mixed (modulated) with periodic identifier codes that have a duration shorter than that of one bit of data to generate a modulated signal.*8 The multiple modulated signals from each device are added together as is, multiplexing them, and the multiplexed signals are sent via a single transmission path. On the receiving side, each device mixes in with the multiplexed signals the identifier codes used for modulation to restore (demodulate) the data and extract the transmitted data.&nbsp; There are no examples of the use of CDM as a standard for wireless communication, but adoption of the related multiple access scheme called code-division multiple access (CDMA) is widespread.*8 During transmission, the frequency bandwidth of the modulated signal ends up being wider than that of the original data stream (original signal). This characteristic provides advantages for communication applications, such as greater tolerance for external noise impinging on the transmission path.<h2>&lt; Column &gt; Explanation of the Terms FDD-LTE and TD-LTE Found in Smartphone Technical Specifications</h2>Sending and receiving take place simultaneously during mobile communications on smartphones or flip phones and phone calls on landline telephones, with a single channel being used for bidirectional transmission of audio data. Such bidirectional transmission can also be thought of as a type of multiplexing technology.Terms such as “FDD-LTE” and “TD-LTE” (TDD-LTE is typically shortened to TD-LTE) often appear in the technical specifications of products such as smartphones. FDD stands for “frequency-division duplex” and TDD stands for “time-division duplex,”*9 both of which refer to bidirectional transmission.&nbsp; Long-term evolution (LTE), on the other hand, is the telecommunications standard of the 4th generation mobile communication system (4G), and this also includes multiple access (OFDMA in the case of 4G). Therefore, “FDD-LTE” indicates both bidirectional transmission and the multiple access scheme used.&nbsp; It is somewhat complicated, but bidirectional transmission is not equivalent to multiplexing, so it is typical when writing about multiple access, which utilizes both bidirectional transmission and multiplexing, to mention the two separately.*9 FDD stands for “frequency-division duplex,” in which different frequencies are assigned to downloading (receiving of data by the device) and uploading (sending of data by the device) in order to implement bidirectional transmission (Figure 8-1). On the other hand, TDD stands for “time-division duplex,” in which the same frequency band is used for both downloading and uploading, the audio data is split up along the time axis, and sending and receiving of voice data alternates at very short intervals (on the order of milliseconds in the case of voice calls) in order to implement bidirectional transmission (Figure 8-2). Thus, strictly speaking, TDD does not provide simultaneous sending and receiving, although this results in no unnatural audible effects in the case of voice calls. Bidirectional transmission is explained in more detail at <a href="https://article.murata.com/en-eu/article/basics-of-wireless-communication-2" target="_blank">Basic Knowledge of Wireless Communication: Wireless Mechanism (2)</a>.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1722839230983-img0015-en.png" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Figure 8-1: Conceptual Diagram of Frequency-Division Duplex (FDD)<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1722839242889-img0016-en.png" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Figure 8-2: Conceptual Diagram of Time-Division Duplex (TDD)

Supplementary information related to FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA Multiple Access (1) is presented below.

FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA Multiple Access: Effective Utilization of Signals (Bandwidth) in Wireless Communication (2)

<h2 id="isPasted">Essential Technologies that Enable Effective Utilization of Signal Bandwidth for Wireless Communication</h2>Everyday our smartphones transmit and receive audio, images, videos and other data. While many people are using the same signal band at the same time, transferring huge amounts of data, we have come to think this is perfectly normal. This is possible thanks to technologies that prevent problems when sending and receiving different types of data, such as the overlapping of data or interference from noise. This article uses graphical illustrations to describe two such technologies aimed at enabling efficient utilization of frequency bandwidth (or bandwidth for short),*1 which is to say the efficient utilization of radio signals:&nbsp; • “multiplexing,” which allows multiple data streams to be transferred at the same time, and&nbsp; • “multiple access,” which makes use of multiplexing technology to allow simultaneous connections with multiple users.Note that multiple access (also called “multiaccess”) is an important technique contributing to the 5th Generation Mobile Communication System (5G), which aims to support very large numbers of simultaneous connections (1 million connections per square kilometer), including connections to “things” such as home appliances and IoT devices.*1 The wider the frequency bandwidth (bandwidth) used for wireless communication, the higher the data communication speed (transmission speed). We plan to explain the relationship between frequency bandwidth and transmission speed in another article.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzIyMjIwMjMyMjgxLWltZzAwMDEuanBnIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Multiple users (devices) using mobile communications at the same time (illustrative photo)<h2 id="isPasted">Transmission of Multiple Data Streams by Wireless Communication</h2><h3>Multiplexing: Effective Utilization of a Single Transmission Path (Air)</h3>The basic model of a communication system, whether using wired or wireless communication,*2 can be represented as shown in Figure 1 (<a href="https://article.murata.com/en-eu/article/basics-of-wireless-communication-1" target="_blank">Basic Knowledge of Wireless Communication: Wireless Mechanism (1)</a>). In this model, the sending side, transmission path, and receiving side are conceived of as one unit, and the stream of data transmitted at a particular time is conceived of as one unit. (We will refer to this as “simple communication” for the time being.) Now, if the sender could send multiple streams of data to the receiving side simultaneously, the efficiency of data sending and receiving would increase. This is what led to the idea of transmitting multiple streams of data simultaneously over a single transmission path. This technology is called multiplexing.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzIyMjIwMjUzMjE4LWltZzAwMDItZW4ucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Figure 1: Configuration of Basic Model for Communication Systems*2 Generally speaking, the transmission path of a communication system is either cables or air, and such systems are classified as either wired or wireless communication based on the transmission path used for telecommunication.<h3>Multiple Access: Implementing Wireless Communication among Multiple Users without Interference</h3>If we think of multiplexing as sending multiple streams of data at the same time, superimposed on each other, we can say that for multiplexing the elements of sending side and receiving side do not exist. In the case of wireless communication, the element of “transceiving” (sending and receiving combined) can be added to multiplexing to allow multiple users to share a single transmission path to transmit multiple streams of data at the same time. This is called multiple access.*3Table 1 shows the relationship between multiplexing and multiple access. To enable comparison with multiple access, we will say that multiplexing uses one sending side and one receiving side. Also, since multiplexing has multiple channels*4 and multiple access also has multiple channels, we can say that multiple access is based on multiplexing.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzIyMjIwMjc4OTEwLWltZzAwMDMtZW4ucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Table 1: Relationship between Multiplexing and Multiple Access*3 In communication-related books and documents, as well as website content, multiplexing and multiple access are sometimes referred to without distinction, depending on what is being described. In the present article, multiple access is described as a technique that makes use of multiplexing to allow multiple users to share a transmission path to send and receive data.*4 Channel: As used here, this can be thought of simply as a route (communication path) along which a radio signal waveform carrying a single data stream travels. The term channel is used in this sense to refer to a signal line. In the case of wireless communication, one can describe a case in which 10 different signal waveforms are transmitted (multiplex transmission) as a communication path with 10 channels, for example.In actual wireless communication, rather than cases where a transmission path is being shared to transmit data from one user to another user, or from one user to multiple other users, cases where multiple users of a mobile communication system (Figure 2) or satellite communication system (Figure 3) share a transmission path are more common. Therefore, the discussion that follows focuses on the workings of multiple access. Multiplexing is explained in <a href="https://article.murata.com/en-eu/article/multiplexing-and-multiple-access-2#section-61975" target="_blank">&lt; Column &gt; How Multiplexing Works: FDM, TDM, and CDM</a>.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzIyMjIwMjk5MDA4LWltZzAwMDQtZW4ucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Figure 2: Conceptual Diagram of Mobile Communication System<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzIyMjIwMzE0ODE3LWltZzAwMDUtZW4ucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Figure 3: Conceptual Diagram of Satellite Communication System<h2 id="isPasted">How Multiple Access Works: FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA</h2>As we mentioned in the preceding section, multiple access is a technique that enables multiple users to communicate without interference by sharing multiplexed channels. The basic types of multiple access, from the least to the most advanced, are as follows: • Frequency-division multiple access (FDMA) • Time-division multiple access (TDMA) • Code-division multiple access (CDMA) Below we explain how each of these work, using conceptual diagrams of each type of multiple access and conceptual diagrams based on Figure 3 using satellite communication as an example.*5*5 Recent wireless communication standards, such as 4G-LTE mobile communication or Wi-Fi 6/6E and Wi-Fi 7 personal communication, use a scheme called orthogonal frequency-division multiple access (OFDMA) that is based on modulation and multiplexing technology called orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM).An explanation of OFDM is omitted here because it would require a background knowledge of complex subjects such as data multivaluation, quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM), and the orthogonal properties of data signals on frequency spectra. We plan to cover this subject in another article.<h3>Frequency-Division Multiple Access (FDMA)</h3>FDMA divides up data streams from multiple users and assigns them to channels using different frequency bands, all of which share a single transmission path (Figure 4-1). Adoption of FDMA began in the 1980s, and it was used to carry cellphone and car phone calls under the analog 1st generation mobile communication system (1G).<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzIyMjIwMzM1NzgzLWltZzAwMDYtZW4ucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Figure 4-1: Conceptual Diagram of Frequency-Division Multiple Access (FDMA)Figure 4-2 shows a conceptual diagram of the use of FDMA for satellite communication. Figure 4-2 shows an arrangement based on Figure 3 in which one sending side (earth station E0) and multiple receiving sides (earth stations E1 to E3) are used to transmit multiplexed data signals. The data signal from earth station E0, consisting of data streams targeted at earth stations E1 to E3, modulated and assigned to different frequencies arranged at equally spaced intervals within the bandwidth supported by the satellite relay, is sent in a manner that ensures that the adjacent signal frequency bands do not overlap (to prevent interference). When earth stations E1 to E3 receive these signals, they are divided up according to the frequency each station is able to receive, and the data streams are extracted.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzIyMjIwMzU5NDg5LWltZzAwMDctZW4ucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Figure 4-2: Example of Satellite Communication Using Frequency-Division Multiple Access (FDMA)<h3 id="isPasted">Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA)</h3>TDMA divides up data streams from multiple users into uniform time intervals and assigns them to channels, all of which share a single transmission path (Figure 5-1). Adoption of TDMA began in the 1990s, and it was used to carry mobile phone calls (GSM, PDC, PHS, etc.) under the digital 2nd generation mobile communication system (2G).<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzIyMjIwMzc3MDE1LWltZzAwMDgtZW4ucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Figure 5-1: Conceptual Diagram of Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA)Figure 5-2 shows a conceptual diagram of the use of TDMA for satellite communication. As in the preceding section, Figure 5-2 shows an arrangement based on Figure 3 in which one sending side (earth station E0) and multiple receiving sides (earth stations E1 to E3) are used to transmit multiplexed data signals.&nbsp; The data signal is sent from earth station E0, delimited by time frames and consisting of “slots” used as channels, excluding the standard burst signal*6 embedded in each frame, and each channel is assigned one of the data streams targeted at earth stations E1 to E3. Then, at each earth station from E1 to E3 the signal is divided up in a manner synchronized with the transmission timing of earth station E0, and the data streams are extracted.*6 Note that TDMA was adopted for satellite communication in addition to FDMA from around 1985.*6 To ensure stability and prevent interference with communication, TDMA requires that the channel switching speed, etc., be synchronized between the sending side and receiving side. Earth station E0 inserts a signal called a burst at the beginning of each frame for synchronization control.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzIyMjIwNDEwNzI0LWltZzAwMDktZW4ucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Figure 5-2: Example of Satellite Communication Using Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA)<h3 id="isPasted">Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA)</h3>CDMA generates signals in which the data streams of users are mixed with unique identifier codes, and the signals of all the users are overlaid within the same frequency band and conveyed via a single transmission path (Figure 6-1). CDMA is used to carry mobile phone calls under the 3rd generation mobile communication system (3G) introduced in the 2000s.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzIyMjIwNDI5MzM4LWltZzAwMTAtZW4ucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Figure 6-1: Conceptual Diagram of Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA)Figure 6-2 shows a conceptual diagram of the use of CDMA for satellite communication. As in the preceding section, Figure 6-2 shows an arrangement based on Figure 3 in which one sending side (earth station E0) and multiple receiving sides (earth stations E1 to E3) are used to transmit multiplexed data signals.Earth station E0 mixes the identifier codes assigned to earth stations E1 to E3 on the receiving side with the data signals targeted at each earth station, generating signals with frequency bands wider than that of the original data signals, and adds them together to create a multiplexed signal that it sends to the satellite relay. Earth stations E1 to E3 each receive the multiplexed signals from the satellite relay, mix in the earth station identifier codes to divide up the signals, and extract data only from the signal that matches their own identifier code. Note that adoption of CDMA for satellite communication began in the 1990s.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzIyMjIwNDQ5Njc0LWltZzAwMTEtZW4ucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Figure 6-2: Example of Satellite Communication Using Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA)<h2 id="isPasted">Summary</h2>As we have seen, multiple access is an important technique for wireless communication, from the aspect of enabling wireless communication among multiple users without interference. Now we would like to delve into a little more detail before concluding this article.&nbsp; Multiple access schemes have become more advanced over time, evolving from FDMA to TDMA to CDMA, but it is no exaggeration to say that the increased frequency utilization efficiency*7 accompanying these advances has been a key aspect of the development of wireless communication. For example, achieving better frequency utilization efficiency in mobile communications makes it possible to increase both the number of users and the overall volume of data that can be transmitted.&nbsp; This is touched on briefly in this article, but the multiple access scheme used by 4G, the most widely used mobile communications system at present, is orthogonal frequency-division multiple access (OFDMA), which is said to provide twice the frequency utilization efficiency of 3G using CDMA. In turn, 5G uses non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA), which delivers even better frequency utilization efficiency than OFDMA.&nbsp; So, to repeat, multiple access, which has advanced with the aim of increasing frequency utilization efficiency, can be considered indispensable to future developments in wireless communication as well as expanded adoption.*7 Frequency utilization efficiency: As used here, this can be simply be understood as the data transmission speed (in units of bits per second (bps)/Hz) per unit of frequency bandwidth. Note that frequency utilization efficiency is sometimes referred to as spectrum efficiency or bandwidth efficiency.

Everyday our smartphones transmit and receive audio, images, videos and other data. While many people are using the same signal band at the same time, transferring huge amounts of data, we have come to think this is perfectly normal.

FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA Multiple Access: Effective Utilization of Signals (Bandwidth) in Wireless Communication

The advent of cellular IoT connectivity revolutionized the way businesses were able to track assets and fleets around the world, and the exponential growth of connected devices continues at a rapid pace. The GSMA reports that between 2020 and 2022, the number of LTE-M networks increased nearly 30%. This increase demonstrates how fundamental connectivity has become to support the way businesses manage their fleets.&nbsp;But what happens when those fleets move outside the boundaries of cellular services? How can businesses circumvent issues when assets are in remote locations? Here we’ll discuss the benefits of satellite asset tracking, and how using satellite connectivity along with cellular should become standard for the future success of asset management enterprises.<h2>Combining Satellite and Cellular Connectivity for More Effective Asset Tracking</h2>The ability to track fleets on the move and on the ground in areas where cellular connectivity is reliable and readily available has significantly improved in recent years. But as companies expand their global presence, sending assets or fleets across oceans or into remote areas, cellular connectivity is no longer a viable or singular option for asset monitoring. In the shipping industry, for example, cellular connectivity allows companies to check ship location statuses from port to port, but not in between.&nbsp;Satellite tracking bridges the gap when ships are traveling across oceans, allowing for more efficient and effective fleet tracking. And while satellite services were once prohibitively expensive, demand has pushed prices down, and more satellite providers make the cellular/satellite connection financially viable. Now, the use of cellular and satellite networks offers a perfect balance between performance and price.Plus, when devices are on the move in remote locations—where cell towers are scarce or non-existent—satellite connectivity becomes the only reliable method to track assets and fleets.<h2>When The Assets You’re Tracking are People: NEYOS Otrac</h2>There are recognizable use cases for a combined cellular/satellite asset tracking—container shipping, as we’ve mentioned, and other supply chain logistics. But there are other use cases—ones in which the devices that need to be tracked are people.NEYOS, a manufacturer of a portable geolocation beacon, was founded following a life-threatening incident in which its co-founder was unable to reach emergency services while located on a mountain. Based on that experience, they developed the NEYOS Otrac, the first satellite and cellular geolocation beacon that allows the tracking of remote sporting activities, like ultra-marathons. And this tracker has become available at a time when ultra-marathoning is rapidly growing. Ultra marathon participation has vastly increased over the years—a staggering 345% in the last decade.&nbsp;As more people become interested in this activity, tracking participants becomes even more essential to ensure runner safety.NEYOS provides sporting event organizers the Otrac and a subscription connectivity plan that offers 4G cellular and satellite tracking ideal for monitoring in remote locations. Those tracking beacons are handed out to runners as part of their marathon safety protocol. If a runner participating in an organization’s event deviates from the planned course or experiences an emergency, the event organizers are immediately alerted through the Otrac security beacon and help can be dispatched promptly.<h2>Other Industries Benefiting from Using Cellular/Satellite Connectivity Combination&nbsp;</h2>The NEYOS beacon use case applies not only to ultra-marathoning, but also to many other remote sporting events, like sailing competitions, remote hiking and cycling, and rally raids. And it also benefits many more emerging industries thanks to its flexible use of both cellular and satellite connectivity. Another instance in which people need to be monitored is when companies dispatch lone workers to remote areas. Similar to sporting event participant tracking, using a monitoring device in conjunction with satellite connectivity gives businesses peace of mind that their employees can make emergency contact using their tracking device. Other sporting activities, like sailing competitions, or agricultural goods tracking—where food is monitored from farm, to port, to ship, then to store—also require both remote satellite and cellular services.<h2>Cellular/Satellite Tracking for Asset Management</h2>Businesses have benefited from asset tracking and management thanks to cellular IoT connectivity, but they need to look to the future in which assets are moving across areas without cell towers. Devices like the NEYOS Otrac, combined with cellular and satellite services provided by Monogoto and Skylo, ensure a smooth transition into the future of asset management.<h2>Scale and Innovate with Monogoto</h2>With Monogoto’s cloud best practices, developers and innovators can start small, with access to all APIs immediately, and scale with a truly global cloud offering. Secure, seamless connectivity across cellular, satellite, and private LTE/5G networks forms the foundation of the future of asset tracking. As the industry evolves, embracing connectivity advancements is key to unlocking new opportunities for growth. Monogoto stands at the forefront of this journey, offering cutting-edge connectivity solutions and developer tools that empower enterprises to innovate like never before.&nbsp;<a href="https://lp.monogoto.io/book-a-demo" data-wpel-link="external" target="_blank" rel="external noopener noreferrer">Book a demo</a> with Monogoto today and take the first step towards a revolutionary experience.

The advent of cellular IoT connectivity revolutionized the way businesses were able to track assets and fleets around the world, and the exponential growth of connected devices continues at a rapid pace. The GSMA reports that between 2020 and 2022, the number of LTE-M networks increased nearly 30%. 

How Combining Cellular and Satellite Connectivity Improves Asset Tracking

Continual advancements in space technology are reshaping our capacity to manage Earth's affairs with precision and efficiency. Amidst the complexities of urbanization, climate change, and global connectivity, the need for sophisticated infrastructure has become increasingly apparent.&nbsp;Satellites, with advanced functionalities, have emerged as indispensable tools for data acquisition, analysis, and communication, which are crucial for informed decision-making on Earth.With their high-resolution cameras, multispectral sensors, and robust communication capabilities, we can capture and transmit data from a wide range of Earth-related activities, from urban planning and disaster management to agricultural monitoring and environmental protection.By continuously orbiting the Earth, satellites capture detailed images and other sensor data covering the whole planet’s surface. We can use this data to track changes in landscapes, monitor weather patterns, and observe natural disasters like forest fires, floods, and hurricanes in real time.This data is collected and transmitted back to Earth, where it can undergo rigorous analysis. Machine learning algorithms, data analytics, and other advanced computing techniques allow us to interpret the data with ease. For example, predictive modeling is utilized to forecast weather changes or track the migration patterns of endangered species. The ability to process real-time data enables quick decision-making, which is especially crucial during responses to natural disasters and emergencies.&nbsp;Communication is another critical functionality of satellites. They ensure communication lines are able to remain open, even in the most remote parts of the world. This facilitates global connectivity, allowing data, voice, and video communication to be transmitted across diverse geographical landscapes.<h1 dir="ltr">Maintenance in space</h1>On Earth, if something breaks down in a factory or a power plant, we don’t build a replacement. Instead, we send a repair team with spare parts, and even better yet, we monitor the components' wear and replace them before they break down. This preventive maintenance approach minimizes downtime and reduces the costs associated with sudden breakdowns.This methodology is critical in industries where reliability and uptime are essential. By continuously monitoring equipment health through sensors and predictive analytics, we can identify potential problems before they lead to operational failures. However, this approach faces unique challenges in space, where sending a repair team is not feasible due to the vast distances and extreme conditions.The transition from Earth-based maintenance to space requires innovative solutions to overcome these challenges. The harsh space environment, including vacuum conditions, microgravity, and cosmic radiation, makes traditional maintenance methods impractical. Additionally, the delay in communication between Earth and spacecraft further complicates real-time interventions, necessitating a more autonomous approach to maintenance and repair operations in space.<a href="https://www.ant61.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">ANT61&nbsp;</a>develops autonomous robots that enable the maintenance of satellites without the need to put human lives at risk. ANT61 is providing solutions for both: their Beacon product allows satellite operators to understand what went wrong with their satellites and restore them back to operation.For larger and more expensive satellites, they are building robots that will dock, refuel, and, in the future, refurbish satellites, prolonging their useful life. At the core of these robots lies ANT61 BrainTM, the innovative devices that combine machine vision and decision-making technology, enabling the autonomy of these maintenance robots. Autonomy is very important as, due to the speed of light limitations, it won’t be possible to control every movement of these robots remotely from Earth.<h3 dir="ltr">BrainChip AkidaTM&nbsp;: A revolutionary neuromorphic processor for edge AI applications</h3>The first generation of the ANT61 Brain uses the <a href="https://brainchip.com/akida-neural-processor-soc/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">BrainChip AkidaTM</a> chip for power-efficient AI and is currently on board the Optimus-1 satellite, which was deployed recently by the SpaceX Transporter-10 mission. ANT61 will test the ANT61 Brain later this year and perform training and evaluation of various neural networks that we will use for future in-orbit servicing technology demonstrations.The BrainChip Akida™ chip is a groundbreaking advancement in neuromorphic computing, designed to mimic the neural architecture of the human brain. This technology stands out for its ability to process data directly at the point of acquisition, greatly enhancing efficiency by reducing the reliance on distant cloud-based systems for data processing.Akida's unique capability lies in its event-based neural processor, which processes data only when needed, using data sparsity to significantly reduce the number of operations required. This leads to lower power consumption and heat dissipation, making it highly suitable for the demanding conditions of space. Each Akida node consists of four Neural Network Layer Engines (NPEs), which can be configured for various functions, such as convolutional layers or fully connected layers, and support incremental learning and high-speed inference. This configuration flexibility allows the chip to efficiently handle a wide range of AI tasks without needing constant connectivity or high power draw.Akida's scalable architecture enables the chip to support up to 256 nodes in a mesh network, boosting computational power while maintaining a small footprint. This scalability is crucial for space applications where efficiency and performance are vital. The entire neural network can be embedded directly within the Akida fabric, eliminating the need for frequent data transfers that consume significant power and reduce system responsiveness.Another key feature of the Akida chip is its on-chip learning capability, which allows it to adapt and improve its performance over time without external intervention. This feature is particularly beneficial in space, where conditions can change rapidly and autonomy is crucial. By processing and learning from data locally, Akida enhances the autonomy of satellite maintenance robots like those developed by ANT61, enabling them to perform complex tasks with minimal latency and enhanced reliability.The ANT61 team chose to partner with BrainChip because they believe that neuromorphic technology will bring the same exponential improvement in AI as 20 years ago. The shift from CPU to GPU opened doors to deep neural network applications, which are at the core of all AI technologies today. Neuromorphic technology is also perfect for space: the lower power consumption means less heat dissipation, and we can get up to five times more computational power for the same electrical power budget.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1715339791069-Akida_1000_chip-1.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Akida AKD1000 is a reference chip implemented with TSMC at 28nm<h1 dir="ltr">The ANT61 vision for the future</h1>Humanity’s expansion to the cosmos requires infrastructure that can only be built by robots. With its in-orbit servicing experience, ANT61 aims to become the main supplier of the robotic workforce for Moon and Mars installations. This will enable companies from Earth to project their ambition to space, providing valuable services and resources for future off-world factories and cities.Neuromorphic computing, exemplified by technologies like the BrainChip Akida™ chip, is set to play a pivotal role in this spacefaring era. This form of computing brings several advantages crucial for space applications, such as low power consumption, high efficiency, and the ability to perform complex computations needed for autonomy. By mimicking the human brain, neuromorphic processors can process large volumes of sensor data efficiently, making real-time decisions without the need to send data back to Earth for processing.The integration of neuromorphic computing into space robotics promises to significantly improve these machines' capabilities. Robots equipped with advanced AI processors can better handle the unpredictable nature of space environments, adapting to new challenges autonomously and performing tasks ranging from construction to maintenance and repair. This capability ensures that space habitats are built efficiently and can be sustained with minimal human oversight.ANT61's vision of utilizing these technologies to support human expansion into space reflects a forward-thinking approach that will not only facilitate the construction of off-world establishments but also ensure their long-term sustainability and success.&nbsp;

Remote satellite maintenance is crucial to critical data acquisition and global communication


Advancing Earth Management Through Neuromorphic Computing Powered Satellites

Space exploration has captivated humanity for decades with its promise of adventure and scientific discovery. But venturing beyond our atmosphere comes with immense challenges. This is where a new wave of technology is poised to revolutionize the space industry: artificial intelligence (AI) and robotics.&nbsp;This episode of the BrainChip podcast is a conversation between BrainChip CTO Dr Tony Lewis and Mikhail Asavkin, founder of Australian space tech company ANT61. They talk about how AI and intelligent robots are no longer science fiction but the key to unlocking the future of space exploration.&nbsp;<h2 dir="ltr">Reusable Rockets and the Democratization of Space</h2>Over the past decade, we have witnessed a remarkable transformation propelled by innovation and the rise of private industry in the space sector. The ability to recover and relaunch rockets has dramatically reduced the cost of space access, opening the door for a new era of private space exploration companies.&nbsp;This democratization of space has spurred innovation and ignited a global race to push the boundaries of what's possible. Mikhail Asavkin, drawing from his extensive experience in space engineering, sheds light on this evolutionary journey and explains how companies like ANT61 are now able to focus their resources on cutting-edge technologies like AI and robotics, thanks to the more affordable launch options provided by reusable rockets.&nbsp;This shift has fundamentally changed the landscape of space exploration, making it a more accessible and dynamic field.<h2 dir="ltr">The Impact of AI on Space Exploration</h2>Mikhail Asavkin and Dr Tony Lewis also discuss the transformative role of AI in space exploration. Here's why AI is the silent hero propelling us further into the cosmos:<ul><li dir="ltr">Due to the speed of light, communicating with robots on the Moon or Mars in real time is impossible. This is where AI steps in. By enabling robots to make autonomous decisions based on sensor data and their surroundings, AI eliminates the need for constant human intervention from Earth.</li><li dir="ltr">Space exploration demands more than just following pre-programmed instructions. Robots must be able to perceive their environment, identify objects, and navigate complex situations. Advancements in AI, particularly image recognition and deep learning, allow robots to "see" and understand their surroundings, enabling them to perform intricate tasks and make critical decisions independently.</li></ul><h2 dir="ltr">Neuromorphic Computing in Space</h2>The limitations of traditional AI systems, particularly their high power consumption, pose a significant challenge for space exploration. Here's where neuromorphic computing enables new ways of exploring space.&nbsp;Inspired by the structure and function of the human brain, neuromorphic chips are designed to process information similarly. This translates to a dramatic reduction in power consumption compared to traditional AI hardware like GPUs (Graphics Processing Units). For spacefaring robots, this is a game-changer.Neuromorphic technology offers a multitude of benefits for space AI:<ul><li dir="ltr">Neuromorphic chips enable this dream by requiring significantly less power to perform complex tasks like object detection and real-time decision-making.</li><li dir="ltr">Neuromorphic chips excel at real-time processing, allowing robots to make critical decisions without delay. This is essential for tasks like navigating hazardous terrain or performing delicate scientific operations.</li></ul><h2 dir="ltr">Training AI on the Go</h2>Traditionally, training AI models involves massive datasets downloaded from Earth and meticulously labeled by humans – a time-consuming and impractical process in the vast expanse of space.Neuromorphic computers, with their ability to learn and adapt in real time, make this possible. The AI model can continuously improve its capabilities and decision-making abilities by processing sensor data and surroundings. By training on-site, the AI model can adapt to specific situations and environments, making its tasks more robust and efficient.However, the podcast also discusses a significant challenge that remains: ensuring the safety and well-being of human explorers venturing into the unknown. This necessitates further advancements in AI, particularly in areas like risk assessment, anomaly detection, and real-time decision-making.<h2 dir="ltr">Conclusion: New Era in Space Exploration</h2>From enabling autonomous robots to construct lunar habitats to empowering AI models to learn and adapt on the fly, these technologies are revolutionizing how we venture beyond our planet. As we look towards a future where humanity establishes a presence on other celestial bodies, AI and robotics will be our indispensable companions.Listen to the full podcast <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yyVWVjYM-nQ&t=3s" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">here.</a>

In this episode, ANT61 Founder and CEO Mikhail Asavkin joins BrainChip CTO Dr. Tony Lewis to discuss the evolution of Space Technology and its impact on daily life. 

BrainChip Podcast: Robotics in Space discussion with ANT61 Founder Mikhail Asavkin

Through steady advances in the development of quantum computers and their ever-improving performance, it will be possible in the future to crack our current encryption processes. To address this challenge, researchers at the Technical University of Munich (TUM) are participating in an international research consortium to develop encryption methods that will apply physical laws to prevent the interception of messages. To safeguard communications over long distances, the QUICK³ space mission will deploy satellites.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1711154269577-csm_m241121013_ATOMIQS_Copyright_JensMeyer_UniversitaetJena_01_393047fa55.webp" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Tobias Vogl investigates single photon sources in 2D materials in an experimental setupHow can it be ensured that data transmitted through the internet can be read only by the intended recipient? At present our data are encrypted with mathematical methods that rely on the idea that the factorization of large numbers is a difficult task. With the increasing power of quantum computers, however, these mathematical codes will probably no longer be secure in the future.<header><h2>Encryption by means of physical laws</h2></header>Tobias Vogl, a&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ce.cit.tum.de/qcs/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer">professor of Quantum Communication Systems Engineering</a>, is working on an encryption process that relies on principles of physics. “Security will be based on the information being encoded into individual light particles and then transmitted. The laws of physics do not permit this information to be extracted or copied. When the information is intercepted, the light particles change their characteristics. Because we can measure these state changes, any attempt to intercept the transmitted data will be recognized immediately, regardless of future advances in technology,” says Tobias Vogl.The big challenge in so-called quantum cryptography lies in the transmission of data over long distances. In classical communications, information is encoded in many light particles and transmitted through optical fibers. However, the information in a single particle cannot be copied. As a result, the light signal cannot be repeatedly amplified, as with current optical fiber transmissions. This limits the transmission distance for the information to a few hundred kilometers.To send information to other cities or continents, the structure of the atmosphere will be used. At altitudes higher than around 10 kilometers, the atmosphere is so thin that light is neither scattered nor absorbed. This will make it possible to use satellites in order to extend quantum communications over longer distances.<header><h2>Satellites for quantum communications</h2></header>As part of the QUICK³ mission, Tobias Vogl and his team are developing an entire system, including all of the components needed to build a satellite for quantum communications. In a first step, the team tested each of the satellite components. The next step will be to try out the entire system in space. The researchers will investigate whether the technology can withstand outer space conditions and how the individual system components interact. The satellite launch is scheduled for 2025. To create an overarching network for quantum communications, however, hundreds or perhaps thousands of satellites will be needed.<header><h2>Hybrid network for encryption</h2></header>The concept does not necessarily require all information to be transmitted using this method, which is highly complex and costly. It is conceivable that a hybrid network could be implemented in which data can be encrypted either physically or mathematically. Antonia Wachter-Zeh, a <a href="https://www.ce.cit.tum.de/en/lnt/people/professors/wachter-zeh/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer">professor of Coding and Cryptography</a>, is working to <a href="https://www.tum.de/en/news-and-events/all-news/press-releases/details/quantum-safe-data-encryption" target="_blank">develop algorithms sufficiently complex that not even quantum computers</a> can solve them. In the future it will still be enough to encrypt most information using mathematical algorithms. Quantum cryptography will be an option only for documents requiring special protection, for example in communications between banks.<hr>Najme Ahmadi, Sven Schwertfeger, Philipp Werner, Lukas Wiese, Joseph Lester, Elisa Da Ros, Josefine Krause, Sebastian Ritter, Mostafa Abasifard, Chanaprom Cholsuk, Ria G. Krämer, Simone Atzeni, Mustafa Gündoğan, Subash Sachidananda, Daniel Pardo, Stefan Nolte, Alexander Lohrmann, Alexander Ling, Julian Bartholomäus, Giacomo Corrielli, Markus Krutzik, Tobias Vogl. "QUICK3 - Design of a Satellite-Based Quantum Light Source for Quantum Communication and Extended Physical Theory Tests in Space“. Adv. Quantum Technol. (2024).&nbsp;<a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/qute.202300343" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer" id="isPasted">doi.org/10.1002/qute.202300343</a>

Tobias Vogl investigates single photon sources in 2D materials in an experimental setup

Through steady advances in the development of quantum computers and their ever-improving performance, it will be possible in the future to crack our current encryption processes.

Satellites for quantum communications

Our society relies heavily on plastic products and the amount of plastic waste is expected to increase in the future. If not properly discarded or recycled, much of it accumulates in rivers and lakes. Eventually it will flow into the oceans, where it can form aggregations of marine debris together with natural materials like driftwood and algae. A new study from Wageningen University and EPFL researchers, recently published in Cell iScience, has developed an artificial intelligence-based detector that estimates the probability of marine debris shown in satellite images. This could help to systematically remove plastic litter from the oceans with ships.<h2>Automatic analysis</h2>Accumulations of marine debris are visible in freely available Sentinel-2 satellite images from the European Space Agency that capture coastal areas every 2-5 days worldwide on land masses and coastal areas. Because these amount to terabytes of data, the data needs to be analysed automatically through artificial intelligence models like deep neural networks. Marc Rußwurm, Assistant Professor at Wageningen University and former researcher at EPFL: “These models learn from examples provided by oceanographers and remote sensing specialists, who visually identified several thousand instances of marine debris in satellite images on locations across the globe. In this way they ‘trained’ the model to recognise plastic debris.” Devis Tuia, associate professor at EPFL and Director of the Sion-based Laboratory of Computational Science for the Environment and Earth Observation (ECEO), is corresponding author of the study.<blockquote>The detector remains accurate even in more challenging conditions. For example when cloud cover and atmospheric haze make it difficult for existing models to identify marine debris precisely.<footer>Marc Rußwurm, Assistant Professor at Wageningen University and former researcher at EPFL</footer></blockquote><h2>Improved detection</h2>The researchers developed an AI-based marine debris detector that estimates the probability of marine debris present for every pixel in Sentinel-2 satellite images. The detector is trained following data-centric AI principles that aim to make best use of the limited training data that is available for this problem. One example is the design of a computer vision algorithm that snaps manual annotations from experts precisely to the debris visible in the images. With this tool, oceanographers and remote sensing experts can provide more training data examples by being less precise in the manual clicking of outlines.Overall, this training method combined with the refinement algorithm teaches the deep artificial intelligence detection model to better predict marine debris objects than previous approaches. Rußwurm: “The detector remains accurate even in more challenging conditions. For example when cloud cover and atmospheric haze make it difficult for existing models to identify marine debris precisely.”<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1701346986180-9a9faa64.jpg" style="width: 766px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Heavy precipitation over Durban, South Africa on 22 April 2019, 19:00. Continued precipitation between 18th and 22nd of April lead to the Durban Easter floods 2019 that washed substantial amounts of plastic litter into the Indian ocean, which are visible in Satellite images. Map data © 2023 Google. Precipitation data © JAXA Global Rainfall Watch<h2 id="isPasted">Following plastic debris</h2>Detecting plastics in marine debris under difficult atmospheric conditions with clouds and haze is particularly important, as often plastics are washed into open waters after rain and flood events. This is shown by the Durban Easter floods in South Africa: In 2019 a long period of rain led to overflowing rivers, resulting in much more litter being washed away than normally. It was taken along through the Durban harbour (left picture) into the open Indian Ocean (right picture). In satellite images, such objects floating between clouds are hard to distinguish when using common red-green-blue colour ‘channels’. They can be visualised by switching to other spectral channels, including near-infrared light.<h2>Double view</h2>Apart from more accurate prediction of marine debris aggregations, the detection model will also notice debris in daily-accessible PlanetScope images, coming from cubic nanosatellites. “Combining weekly Sentinel-2 with daily PlanetScope acquisitions can close the gap towards continuous daily monitoring”, explained Rußwurm. “Also, PlanetScope and Sentinel-2 sometimes capture the same patch of marine debris at the same day only a few minutes apart. This double view of the same object at two locations reveals the drift direction due to wind and ocean currents on the water. This information can be used to improve drift estimation models for marine debris.”<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1701347058805-06fb92a9.jpg" style="width: 766px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">The scientists tested the AI model predictions on Sentinel-2 satellite images of challenging atmospheric conditions with clouds and haze. In red, the correctly detected debris with plastic waste. © ESA / Cell iScience<h2 id="isPasted">Further explorations</h2>These directions will be explored further in the research of Prof. Marc Rußwurm at Wageningen University together with Prof. Tim van Emmerik, who is an expert in river plastics, and partners in the Netherlands, such as the Ocean Cleanup, who collect plastics on open oceans with dedicated ships. It originates from work in the AI for Detection of Plastics with Tracking (ADOPT) project in collaboration with the Swiss Data Science Center (a joint venture between ETH Zurich and EPFL) and EPFL by Prof. Devis Tuia, Dr. Emanuele Dalsasso, and Prof. Marc Rußwurm that investigates the continuous tracking of marine debris in between satellite imagery further.<h2>Sentinel-2 and PlanetScope</h2><a href="https://sentinel.esa.int/web/sentinel/missions/sentinel-2" target="_blank" rel="noopener">ESA’s Sentinel-2 satellite constellation</a> from the European Space Agency consists of two large satellites that cover the Earth every 2-5 days. They measure the reflected light in multiple spectral channels beyond the visible red-green-blue and up to 10m pixel size. The images are openly available.<a href="https://earth.esa.int/eogateway/missions/planetscope" target="_blank" rel="noopener">PlanetScope Doves and SuperDoves</a> make up a constellation of several hundred small CubeSats (nanosatellites) that cover the Earth every day at 3-7m pixel resolution. The images are not free to acquire, but can be used to a limited extent for research purposes at no cost through a Research and Education programme.<hr>References<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2589004223024793" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Marc Rußwurm, Sushen Jilla Venkatesa, Devis Tuia, "Large-scale Detection of Marine Debris in Coastal Areas with Sentinel-2", Cell iScience, 8 November 2023.</a>

A research team from EPFL and Wageningen University has developed a new artificial intelligence model that recognises floating plastics much more accurately in satellite images than before. This could help to systematically remove plastic litter from the oceans with ships.

AI helps detecting plastic in oceans

Small satellites are becoming increasingly compact and powerful. The technology of conventional radio channels is reaching its limits due to the rising number of satellites. Laser communications offers solutions for the efficient transmission of high data volumes without interfering with other channels. For this application, the German Aerospace Center (Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt; DLR) <a href="https://www.dlr.de/en/kn" target="_blank">Institute of Communications and Navigation</a>, together with the company Tesat-Spacecom GmbH &amp; Co. KG <a href="https://www.tesat.de/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">TESAT</a>, developed OSIRIS4CubeSat, the world's smallest commercially available laser communications terminal. The reliability and error-free functionality of the terminal, which was specifically developed for use on microsatellites, was confirmed during a test mission in space.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1699086525920-image-1600-66c2779f82a779fcbe74aba8d1b6a0ad.jpeg" style="width: 766px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">The highly compact communication terminal CubeLCT was developed at the DLR Institute of Communication and Navigation on behalf of the company Tesat Spacecom. It is prepared for series production and can be integrated and adjusted with a few degrees of freedom. Credit: DLR (CC BY-NC-ND 3.0)"This success is the result of our many years of research in the field of optical satellite communications," says Florian David, Director of the DLR Institute of Communications and Navigation. "It demonstrates the impressive potential for designing small, light and at the same time powerful optical satellite terminals. This is an important building block for future satellite systems, for example for Earth observation or in megaconstellations."<h2>Microsatellite with an optical communications system</h2>The first OSIRIS4CubeSat terminal was launched into space on board the CubeL satellite on 24 January 2021. During the <a href="https://www.dlr.de/de/aktuelles/nachrichten/2021/01/20210124_pionierstart-kleinsatellit-mit-kleinstem-laserterminal-der-welt" target="_blank">PIXL-1 mission</a>, images acquired by the camera system on CubeL could be sent to the Optical Ground Station Oberpfaffenhofen using the OSIRIS4CubeSat laser. Both the satellite and the laser terminal have since undergone extensive testing. Now the tests have been successfully completed with an end-to-end demonstration. The reliability and error-free functionality of OSIRIS4CubeSat in space have been confirmed.Microsatellites, or CubeSats, have a standardised cube shape with an edge length of 10 centimetres and can be extended as required. The laser communications terminal developed in the <a href="https://www.dlr.de/kn/en/desktopdefault.aspx/tabid-17840/#gallery/36173" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">OSIRIS4CubeSat</a> project together with TESAT complies with this standard. The patented design, in which an electronic circuit board was used as the mechanical basis for the optical elements for the first time, made it possible to achieve a high degree of compactness.<h2>High data transmission rates without electromagnetic interference</h2>With a data rate of 100 megabits per second, the laser terminal's speed far surpasses the transmission capabilities of comparable radio systems. In addition to the high data rate, laser light as a transmission medium is unaffected by electromagnetic interference. Channel crosstalk, as often occurs with conventional radio channels, does not exist with laser transmission. This means that laser transmission channels do not require lengthy approval procedures on the part of the Federal Network Agency (Bundesnetzagentur; BNetzA) or the International Telecommunication Union (ITU).When transmitting image data to Earth by laser, encoding procedures developed at DLR were employed to safeguard the data. This is necessary to maintain stable, zero-loss transmission from the satellite to Earth, since the data must be protected from disruptions caused by atmospheric effects. For this purpose, they are encoded on the satellite before being sent to the ground station using the laser link. There, following reception, they are decoded and then processed. The <a href="https://www.dlr.de/en/research-and-transfer/projects-and-missions/iss/the-german-space-operations-center" target="_blank">German Space Operations Center (GSOC)</a> is responsible for the commanding, operation and support of the satellite. CubeL is thus the first CubeSat to be successfully integrated into GSOC's existing ground segment.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1699086552505-image-1600-a23a7a8f570e1abd2658cf00a0296875.jpeg" style="width: 766px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">The new op­ti­cal ground sta­tion on the roof of the DLR In­sti­tute of Com­mu­ni­ca­tions and Nav­i­ga­tion in Oberp­faf­fen­hofen. Credit: DLR (CC BY-NC-ND 3.0)<h2>From research to industrial application</h2>The results from PIXL-1 show the error-free functionality of the OSIRIS4CubeSat terminal along the complete transmission chain. This will enable widespread use of laser communications on a large number of satellites in the future. The technology was transferred to TESAT even before the demonstration mission was completed. TESAT has since incorporated the terminal into its portfolio and offers it to commercial customers under the name 'CubeLCT' or 'SCOT20', which is a further development of the product.Siegbert Martin, Chief Technology Officer at TESAT said: "This underlines the great opportunities that arise from cooperation between research and industry in Germany."

The PIXL-1 small satellite can acquire images of the Earth with a high-resolution camera and send them to the Optical Ground Station Oberpfaffenhofen with the CubeLCT via a laser link. Credit: DLR (CC BY-NC-ND 3.0)

Small satellites are becoming increasingly compact and powerful. The technology of conventional radio channels is reaching its limits due to the rising number of satellites.

Demonstration of data transmission from a microsatellite by laser

Caracol had the possibility of working with D-Orbit and the Department of Mechanical Engineering of Politecnico di Milano, thanks to the financed call 𝗧𝗲𝗰𝗵𝗙𝗮𝘀𝘁 𝗟𝗼𝗺𝗯𝗮𝗿𝗱𝗶𝗮 (𝗣𝗢𝗥 𝗙𝗘𝗦𝗥 𝟮𝟬𝟭𝟰-𝟮𝟬𝟮𝟬) by Regione Lombardia, Caracol was able 𝘁𝗼 𝗺𝗮𝗻𝘂𝗳𝗮𝗰𝘁𝘂𝗿𝗲 𝗮 𝗹𝗶𝗴𝗵𝘁 𝗮𝗹𝗹𝗼𝘆 𝗽𝗿𝗲𝘀𝘀𝘂𝗿𝗶𝘇𝗲𝗱 𝘁𝗮𝗻𝗸 𝘄𝗶𝘁𝗵 𝗪𝗔𝗔𝗠.&nbsp;As the final component is meant to be mounted on a carrier satellite to transport and release CubeSats into orbit, D-Orbit&#39;s input was essential to help pinpoint the functional characteristics the component needed, while Politecnico di Milano was fundamental for material characterization, optimizing process parameters, and qualifying the final product.From this first project and collaboration, it was possible to test first-hand the real advantages and potential, both in terms of product and process efficiencies, such as:&nbsp;<ul><li>𝗙𝗿𝗲𝗲𝗱𝗼𝗺 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝗳𝗹𝗲𝘅𝗶𝗯𝗶𝗹𝗶𝘁𝘆 𝗶𝗻 𝗱𝗲𝘀𝗶𝗴𝗻 of complex parts with be-spoke geometries&nbsp;</li><li>𝗪𝗲𝗶𝗴𝗵𝘁 𝗿𝗲𝗱𝘂𝗰𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻 𝗼𝗳 𝗰𝗼𝗺𝗽𝗼𝗻𝗲𝗻𝘁𝘀 with a positive environmental impact due to propellant consumption and waste reduction&nbsp;</li><li>𝗛𝗶𝗴𝗵-𝗽𝗲𝗿𝗳𝗼𝗿𝗺𝗮𝗻𝗰𝗲, 𝗺𝗼𝗻𝗼𝗹𝗶𝘁𝗵𝗶𝗰 𝘀𝘁𝗿𝘂𝗰𝘁𝘂𝗿𝗲 𝗼𝗳 𝗰𝗼𝗺𝗽𝗼𝗻𝗲𝗻𝘁𝘀, eliminating the need to assemble several parts&nbsp;</li><li>𝗠𝗶𝗻𝗶𝗺𝗶𝘇𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻 of 𝗿𝗮𝘄 𝗺𝗮𝘁𝗲𝗿𝗶𝗮𝗹 𝘂𝘀𝗲𝗱 and 𝘄𝗮𝘀𝘁𝗲 𝗴𝗲𝗻𝗲𝗿𝗮𝘁𝗲𝗱&nbsp;</li><li>𝗢𝘃𝗲𝗿𝗮𝗹𝗹 𝗰𝗼𝘀𝘁 and 𝗹𝗲𝗮𝗱 𝘁𝗶𝗺𝗲 𝗼𝗽𝘁𝗶𝗺𝗶𝘇𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻, if compared to traditional manufacturing</li></ul>

Caracol has introduced Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing to explore how to manufacture advanced applications such as space vehicles, leveraging the benefits of AM and robotics. This project enabled the production of propulsion tanks for CubeSat carrier space vehicles,