Diode Symbols: A Comprehensive Guide to Understanding Circuit Diagrams

<h2 id="isPasted"><strong>Electroforming technology overview</strong></h2><p>Electroforming is a manufacturing process for the production of high-precision metal components. With precision down to 1 micron, this additive manufacturing process enables the production of metal components with complex designs and unmatched accuracy.&nbsp;Veco, the industry leader in&nbsp;Electroforming technology, was the first to use cutting-edge Laser Direct Imaging (LDI) technology in the production of very precise metal parts. With the help of LDI &nbsp;and our industry-leading&nbsp;Advanced Lithographic Electroforming&nbsp;technology, we have been able to further push the boundaries of the industry, giving our customers higher-quality, more affordable, and faster-turnaround high-precision metal components.</p><p>In addition to its precision and design flexibility, Electroforming technology enables the creation of complex features and 3D structures through multi-layer deposition. With&nbsp;<a href="https://www.vecoprecision.com/electroforming/electroforming-process/" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Electroforming process</a>, additional layers can be&nbsp;“grown”&nbsp;in specific directions, resulting in complex 3D or 2.5D geometries. This capacity creates new opportunities for delicate product design and is especially useful for semiconductor applications that need for the reinforcement of thin parts or delicate structures.</p><h2><strong>Electroforming for Semiconductor industry</strong></h2><p>In contrast to conventional machining techniques such as milling, etching, and EDM, Electroforming provides greater capabilities for producing micro-scale features with exceptional accuracy. With Electroforming technology, complex designs with delicate features which traditional machining finds challenging can be easily transformed into high-quality components. Additionally, the approach produces a lot less waste and is more economical from rapid prototyping to large-scale manufacturing. Compared to other high-precision processes such as silicon MEMS, Electroforming offers a wide variety of materials such as nickel, copper, gold, silver, and other alloys (<a href="https://www.vecoprecision.com/electroforming/materials-used-in-electroforming/" rel="noopener" target="_blank">learn more about material possibilities with Electroforming</a>). Electroformed metals also provide mechanical functionalities that are difficult or impossible to achieve with silicon MEMS. For example, metals used in Electroforming are more ductile and elastic than silicon, which is crucial for Semiconductor applications like contact probes, micro-springs, and flexures.</p><p>Electroforming technology is a crucial production technique in the semiconductor sector, providing benefits in terms of accuracy, cost-effectiveness, and technical capability. The technology's ability to produce complex, precise components makes it a key enabler for semiconductor manufacturing and next-generation research and design.&nbsp;<br>applications in the Semiconductor industry benefiting from Electroforming technology<br>Semiconductor testing and inspection equipment benefit greatly from Electroforming technology. Take&nbsp;<a href="https://www.vecoprecision.com/products/mems-probes/" rel="noopener" target="_blank">MEMS probe</a> as an example, MEMS probes are used to evaluate the performance of electrical devices during the front-end fabrication and wafer testing. Electroforming enables the creation of high-quality MEMS probes with complex requirements. Electroformed vertical probes can provide a highly stable contact resistance as well as outstanding mechanical and electrical properties.</p><p><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1734081420007-1734081420007.png" width="717" height="319" alt="wafer-probes-1" srcset="https://insights.vecoprecision.com/hs-fs/hubfs/wafer-probes-1.webp?width=359&amp;height=160&amp;name=wafer-probes-1.webp 359w, https://insights.vecoprecision.com/hs-fs/hubfs/wafer-probes-1.webp?width=717&amp;height=319&amp;name=wafer-probes-1.webp 717w, https://insights.vecoprecision.com/hs-fs/hubfs/wafer-probes-1.webp?width=1076&amp;height=479&amp;name=wafer-probes-1.webp 1076w, https://insights.vecoprecision.com/hs-fs/hubfs/wafer-probes-1.webp?width=1434&amp;height=638&amp;name=wafer-probes-1.webp 1434w, https://insights.vecoprecision.com/hs-fs/hubfs/wafer-probes-1.webp?width=1793&amp;height=798&amp;name=wafer-probes-1.webp 1793w, https://insights.vecoprecision.com/hs-fs/hubfs/wafer-probes-1.webp?width=2151&amp;height=957&amp;name=wafer-probes-1.webp 2151w" sizes="(max-width: 717px) 100vw, 717px" class="fr-fic fr-dii"></p><p>Another critical application of Electroforming in the semiconductor industry is the<a href="https://www.vecoprecision.com/products/test-socket-pins/" rel="noopener" target="_blank">&nbsp;test socket pin</a>. These pins serve as the link between the Device under test (DUT) and the testing equipment, where high precision and durability is a must. For a high-performance test socket, the contactors, the pins in the socket, play a very important role in transferring the signal between the device under test (DUT) and the system with the least amount of signal attenuation or degradation. Electroformed test socket pins provide enhanced mechanical and electrical stability, which leads to longer lifespans and better performance. Additionally, different types of test sockets are needed for different testing processes with specialized electrical and mechanical parameters. Design flexibility of Electroforming technology allows for high level of customization and co-development for engineers to tailor to specific testing needs.</p><p>In semiconductor process equipment, Electroforming technology is also employed to create high-precision parts such as gas distribution plates for deposition systems. These components require precise hole patterns and uniform gas flow characteristics to ensure optimal process performance. The accurate dimensional control of Electroforming makes it an ideal choice. As semiconductor devices continue evolving and downsizing, the use of Electroforming in the production and innovation of vital components is anticipated to increase.&nbsp;</p><h2><strong>Co-developing with Veco</strong></h2><p>When it comes to “tailor-made” solutions for semiconductor applications, Veco's expertise in Electroforming technology and collaborative&nbsp;co-development&nbsp;approach make&nbsp;us&nbsp;the&nbsp;partner&nbsp;of industry leaders.&nbsp;Our&nbsp;application engineering and R&amp;D teams&nbsp;work closely with customers to create next-generation products, combining&nbsp;our&nbsp;knowledge and experience to design, prototype, and scale up to industrial production. Veco's Electroforming technology allows for highly flexible, efficient, and economical development, enabling the creation of several variations of a component in a single run. This experimental design approach is particularly valuable for customers in the design and development phase, as it allows them to compare and test different iterations of a part without incurring significant time and cost. By working with Veco, semiconductor manufacturers can leverage&nbsp;our&nbsp;expertise in precision&nbsp;engineering&nbsp;to bring innovative solutions to market faster and more efficiently.</p><p><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1734081420101-1734081420101.png" width="715" height="383" alt="Services - Codevelopment" srcset="https://insights.vecoprecision.com/hs-fs/hubfs/Veco/Images/Services%20-%20Codevelopment.jpg?width=358&amp;height=192&amp;name=Services%20-%20Codevelopment.jpg 358w, https://insights.vecoprecision.com/hs-fs/hubfs/Veco/Images/Services%20-%20Codevelopment.jpg?width=715&amp;height=383&amp;name=Services%20-%20Codevelopment.jpg 715w, https://insights.vecoprecision.com/hs-fs/hubfs/Veco/Images/Services%20-%20Codevelopment.jpg?width=1073&amp;height=575&amp;name=Services%20-%20Codevelopment.jpg 1073w, https://insights.vecoprecision.com/hs-fs/hubfs/Veco/Images/Services%20-%20Codevelopment.jpg?width=1430&amp;height=766&amp;name=Services%20-%20Codevelopment.jpg 1430w, https://insights.vecoprecision.com/hs-fs/hubfs/Veco/Images/Services%20-%20Codevelopment.jpg?width=1788&amp;height=958&amp;name=Services%20-%20Codevelopment.jpg 1788w, https://insights.vecoprecision.com/hs-fs/hubfs/Veco/Images/Services%20-%20Codevelopment.jpg?width=2145&amp;height=1149&amp;name=Services%20-%20Codevelopment.jpg 2145w" sizes="(max-width: 715px) 100vw, 715px" class="fr-fic fr-dii"></p>

This blog overviews the Electroforming technology, compares its technical advantages to alternative manufacturing methods, and introduces typical applications in the semiconductor industry.

Electroforming for Semiconductor: enabling next-generation innovation through ultimate precision

Have you considered how modern communication systems, like GSM networks, satellite communications, and broadcasting, manage multiple signals with precision? RF diplexers and duplexers make seamless signal sharing and optimal performance possible. Let’s explore the technology in this article.

Duplexer vs Diplexer: A Technical Guide to RF Signal Management Components

<p id="isPasted">Gallium nitride (GaN) offers significant benefits of increased efficiency and power density, and allows designers to meet far more challenging power supply specifications than they can with silicon MOSFETs. &nbsp;One reasonable concern about any new technology that offers game-changing benefits is robustness and reliability. To address any doubts that potential users may have, let’s discuss the robustness, reliability and quality of GaN.</p><p>GaN, as a power conversion technology, does not have as long a pedigree as silicon. Even so, the bathtub curve as a representation of the failure rate of a device over time is certainly very well established and multiple companies have contributed to fleshing out the details as they pertain to the new GaN devices. It is a useful visualization tool for reliability engineering and deterioration modeling, and serves as a clear mechanism to discuss why failures occur and how to predict and prevent them.&nbsp;</p><p>‘Bathtub' of course, refers to the shape of the curve. The x axis in Figure 1 is the log of time, and the y axis is the probability of failure. The green line – our bathtub curve - is the rate of failure of a typical product over time. In the early phase of a product's life, failures are mainly quality-related due to manufacturing defects. In the center zone, there are devices that were well manufactured, and that haven't yet worn out, but they failed anyway, typically because these parts have been overstressed. Then, after some time, parts wear out, so the failure mode is due to lifetime issues.</p><p><span class="fr-img-caption fr-fic fr-dib" style="width: 832px;"><span class="fr-img-wrap"><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1732548346749-PI+Doug+Bailey+Fig+1+1.12+%281%29.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"><span class="fr-inner">Figure 1</span></span></span></p><h3><strong>Lifetime</strong></h3><p>If we consider failures in the far distant future, the challenge is that users can’t wait for, say, 100,000 hours (11 years), or a century, one million hours, for a device to fail before the wear-out mechanisms can be investigated. To accelerate time for the purposes of IC testing, a test called High Temperature Operational Life (HTOL) is employed. This leverages the tendency of physical systems to change faster with temperature, under strong electric fields and in the presence of free ions (humidity and metal migration), to accelerate the effects of time and use on the devices under test. Surprisingly, a relatively few parts (48 for commercial and 77 for automotive) when tested with acceleration over 1000 hours provide the information that we need to determine the probability of failure in many years under normal conditions. The test is run on multiple batches of devices to expose any process dependency. Another test, called HALT (highly accelerated life test), applies a similar test under increased humidity but at a slightly lower temperature.&nbsp;</p><p>These tests are standard procedure for analog integrated circuits. But because GaN is a new technology, users and manufacturers must make doubly sure that the GaN switch inside the IC is robust and will have a long life, and there are tests specifically designed for discrete transistors called HTRB (high temperature reverse bias) and HTGB (high temperature gate bias) which address this. HTRB and HTGB test the device for 1000 hours at elevated temperatures under a DC voltage stress to make sure there are no migration issues, or long term degradation mechanisms associated with high voltage operation at high temperature. Hot Carrier Tests (HCI) are also performed to find any places where electrons in the channel can get diverted into oxide layers and become trapped. Electro-migration testing makes sure that the metal conductors on the top of the die are appropriately sized for the current that they carry. And gate oxide integrity tests prove the strength of the gate. All these tests are performed on devices intended for industrial and commercial customers.&nbsp;</p><p>Of course, GaN is also very suitable for the automotive market, which is even more demanding. So in addition to the usual tests just described, for automotive devices we run more tests, primarily H3TRB, which increases the humidity and temperature demands above the standard HTRB. Then we run a series of tests that are designed to switch the part on and off multiple times to prove that the devices are immune to the thermal shock of being switched on. These tests are called Power Temperature Cycling and Intermittent Op Life - the latter was originally a military test. As well as stressing the devices to a higher level, automotive tests are carried out on a larger sample size than for commercial and industrial parts.&nbsp;</p><h3><strong>Manufacturing quality </strong></h3><p>So much for the long term; we also need to address manufacturing quality problems that can cause parts to fail in early life. Power Integrations’ quality policy is to prevent any of these parts from entering the product stream. You might think that a robust final test of finished products would catch all of the mis-manufactured devices, and that is certainly an important part of it. However, in order to create an essentially perfect product stream, we work hard to screen out substandard material in prior manufacturing steps – using so-called “process monitors”. These monitor tests reduce the number of parts with latent defects that make it into final test and are critical for improving final product quality.&nbsp;</p><p>Power Integrations regards epitaxially grown GaN (EPI) as the critical stage in GaN transistor design and production. Because of this, we make our own EPI – we don’t buy it, nor finished wafers, from a third party. Therefore we have complete control over the process, and we can check it continuously. This means that only the best wafers make it through to patterning. After a wafer has been patterned into transistors, we run stress tests to identify parts that are faulty or have a risk of a quality problem.</p><p>To validate that our process monitors, our yield improvements and our final test regime yield a perfect product stream, a test called ELFR (Early Life Failure Rate) is used. ELFR is analogous to the High Temperature Op Life (HTOL) test. But instead of doing a small number of parts for a long time, we do a large number of parts for a relatively short time - 800 parts for 48 hours, across multiple IC lots to ensure that any process dependencies are exposed.&nbsp;</p><h3><strong>Overstress</strong></h3><p>We've spoken about reliability and wear out mechanisms and how to guarantee initial quality. But what happens in the middle section of our bathtub curve? These are parts that have been manufactured perfectly. They haven't worn out yet, yet they are dead anyway due to overstress.</p><p><span class="fr-img-caption fr-fic fr-dib" style="width: 832px;"><span class="fr-img-wrap"><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1732548369476-PI+Doug+Bailey+Fig+2+11.19+%281%29.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"><span class="fr-inner">Figure 2</span></span></span></p><p>To ensure that our devices are robust under the temperature, voltage and humidity conditions that they will be exposed to during their operational life, we run more tests. These are:</p><p>l&nbsp;MSL - moisture sensitivity level;</p><p>l&nbsp;UHAST - also a moisture test, but under pressure;</p><p>l TMCL - a temperature cycling test which tests for differential heating and cooling; and&nbsp;</p><p>l HTSL - high temperature storage life which is the absolute high temperature test.&nbsp;</p><p>One of the most important attributes of a power semiconductor is its ability to withstand voltage. Power Integrations specifies three types of GaN, with BVs (breakdown voltages) of 750 V, 900 V and 1250 V. However, even though we talk about BV for convenience, GaN transistors are not specified in the same way as a silicon device. There's a property of GaN called dynamic R<sub>DS(ON)&nbsp;</sub>which actually increases when high voltage is applied. It recovers later, but under the initial voltage, and for a short while afterwards, it is higher than the typical value.&nbsp;</p><p>Power Integrations has chosen 5% as being the limit that we can accept as an increase in R<sub>DS(ON)</sub>. This determines the datasheet ‘BV’ of our GaN devices. We choose the conservative values noted above for the datasheet specification, but actual breakdown does not occur until around 1400 V for the lower voltage families and 2200 V for the 1250 V product line – in all cases, a massive margin with respect to the datasheet BV limits. It’s unwise to design systems to use the devices above the datasheet BV, but this headroom is very useful insurance against infrequent line swells and surges, such as lightning strikes.</p><h2><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2><p>With this battery of tests (Figure 2) - process monitors for initial quality, voltage margin to allow for overstressing, wear-out mechanisms that ensure reliability, plus tests related to temperature and moisture sensitivity - whether you're making a smart phone adapter or an automobile, you can have confidence in PowiGaN™, Power Integrations’ GaN technology.</p>

Gallium nitride (GaN) offers superior efficiency and power density, with reliability assessed using the "bathtub curve" to predict and prevent failures from defects, overstress, and aging.

Quality, Robustness and Reliability - Breaking Down the Bathtub

Plasma cleaning is a high-tech surface treatment that uses ionized gas to remove microscopic contaminants, enhancing adhesion and durability in materials. This article explains plasma cleaning’s role across industries, its eco-friendly benefits, and emerging trends in sustainable manufacturing.

Plasma Cleaning: Cutting-Edge Innovations, Core Principles, and Real-World Applications

Thin film deposition applies material layers at the atomic/molecular level, vital for advancing electronics, energy, and aerospace. Key methods like CVD, PVD, and ALD enhance material properties, driving innovations in semiconductors, solar cells, and precision tech.

Thin Film Deposition Technologies: Transforming Electronics, Energy, and Aerospace

Semiconductor nanodevices are tiny electronic components crucial in modern electronics due to their smaller size and improved performance. These devices enable faster processors, higher-density memory, and more efficient energy consumption. 


The Cutting Edge of Semiconductor Nanodevices: A Comprehensive Overview of Recent Innovations

<h1 dir="ltr" id="isPasted">Context and Importance</h1><p dir="ltr">The current market size of Cloud computing is estimated to be USD 0.68 trillion, and it is growing at a very rapid pace. According to some estimations, by 2029, the cloud computing market will reach USD 1.44 trillion with a compound annual growth rate of 16.40%. 1&nbsp;</p><p dir="ltr">As cloud computing adoption has accelerated, so too has the energy demand to power the massive data centers that host these services. These energy demands have significant environmental implications, contributing to increased carbon emissions and raising concerns about the sustainability of the digital future. In this regard, the concept of Green Cloud has emerged to be an imperative that mitigates these concerns.</p><p dir="ltr">The aim of this article is to explain the Green Cloud, its underlying principles, and how engineers and organizations can implement sustainable practices in cloud operations.</p><h1 dir="ltr">Defining the Green Cloud</h1><h2 dir="ltr">What is the Green Cloud?</h2><p dir="ltr">The Green Cloud means integrating sustainable practices into cloud computing operations by focusing on energy-efficient, environmentally-friendly cloud services that minimize carbon emissions and reduce resource consumption. Traditionally, cloud computing primarily focuses on factors like scalability, flexibility, and cost-efficiency without environmental aspects as a primary concern. However, in the case of Green Cloud computing, along with the aforementioned factors, the objective is to create a more eco-conscious digital infrastructure that contributes to long-term environmental preservation and seeks to manage resources sustainably via energy usage optimization and e-waste reduction.</p><h2 dir="ltr">Key Environmental Issues in Cloud Computing</h2><p dir="ltr">Data centers are considered the core of cloud computing; however, they consume vast amounts of energy that leads to an excess carbon footprint in the environment. The power required to operate servers, cool systems, and manage data has significant environmental consequences, especially when fueled by non-renewable energy sources like coal and natural gas. Moreover, as the hardware and cooling systems become outdated, data centers also generate significant e-waste that can contribute to resource depletion and hazardous waste production.</p><h1 dir="ltr">Why the Green Cloud Matters</h1><h2 dir="ltr">Impact of Traditional Cloud Practices</h2><p dir="ltr">The energy consumption of traditional cloud computing practices is staggering. For instance, the three hundred thousand servers of Microsoft's Chicago data center alone consume 23.5% of the USA's total coal-generated electric power. Similarly, Google has over one million servers worldwide that also consume a lot of energy.&nbsp;2</p><p dir="ltr">The energy consumption of data centers is expected to further increase, driven by the exponential growth of data. Without intervention, this could lead to even greater carbon emissions, placing unsustainable pressure on global power grids and ecosystems. It is projected that the proportion of global carbon dioxide emissions attributed to information and communication technologies (ICTs) has grown from 1.3% in 2002 to 2.3% by 2020.&nbsp;3&nbsp;Therefore, it is imperative to shift towards sustainable cloud operations that prioritize environmental sustainability.</p><h1 dir="ltr">Principles of a Green Cloud</h1><h2 dir="ltr">Energy Efficiency</h2><p dir="ltr">The principles of a Green Cloud revolve around minimizing environmental impact by using energy-efficient hardware and optimizing server infrastructure. Modern data centers are adopting energy-efficient processors and low-power servers designed to reduce electricity consumption. To improve energy efficiency, one key strategy can be utilizing virtualized environments, where multiple virtual servers can run on a single physical machine enabling workload consolidation, which means that data centers can handle more tasks with fewer resources, significantly reducing idle server energy consumption.</p><h2 dir="ltr">Renewable Energy Adoption</h2><p dir="ltr">Currently cloud processing is heavily dependent on non-renewable energy sources, as evident through the example of Microsoft's Chicago data center using a quarter of the USA's coal-generated energy. Powering data centers with renewable energy is a critical step in achieving sustainable cloud computing as renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, and hydroelectric power, offer a clean alternative to fossil fuels that can help reduce the carbon footprint of cloud operations.&nbsp;</p><p dir="ltr">In this regard, major cloud providers like Google and Microsoft are prioritizing sustainability by committing to renewable energy use and reducing their carbon footprints. For instance, Microsoft Azure has set a goal to achieve carbon-negative operations by 2030, while Google plans to run entirely carbon-free.&nbsp;4</p><h2 dir="ltr">Carbon Reduction Techniques</h2><p dir="ltr">Another important principle is to utilize carbon reduction techniques, including utilizing low-power processors, energy management software, and cooling system optimizations that minimize the energy required to maintain ideal operating temperatures in data centers. For instance, open-source tools like <a href="https://www.cloudcarbonfootprint.org/">Cloud Carbon Footprint</a> are designed to measure, track, and reduce carbon emissions from cloud usage. This tool generates metrics and projections for potential carbon reductions, which can be communicated to employees, investors, and other relevant stakeholders. 5</p><p dir="ltr">Similarly, carbon offset programs that enable cloud providers to invest in environmental projects that compensate for their carbon emissions are also great initiatives toward Green Cloud.&nbsp;</p><p dir="ltr"><span class="fr-img-caption fr-fic fr-dii" style="width: 822px;"><span class="fr-img-wrap"><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1730724156554-Screenshot+2024-09-25+115819.png" width="624" height="291" class="fr-fic fr-dii"><span class="fr-inner"></span></span></span></p><p dir="ltr" id="isPasted">Screenshot from the Cloud Carbon Footprint tool. Credit: cloudcarbonfootprint</p><p></p><h1 dir="ltr">Technological Approaches to Achieving the Green Cloud</h1><h2 dir="ltr">Cloud Infrastructure Optimization</h2><p dir="ltr">Technological approaches to achieve a Green Cloud focus on optimizing cloud infrastructure to minimize energy consumption. For instance, techniques such as power-efficient cooling systems and improved server designs reduce energy usage in data centers.&nbsp;</p><p dir="ltr">Moreover, data centers can minimize their environmental impact by using techniques like resource scheduling and workload management to ensure that resources are not wasted on idle tasks. In this regard, automation also plays a vital role as automated systems can intelligently manage server activity, powering down unused servers or scaling resources based on real-time needs.&nbsp;</p><h2 dir="ltr">Edge Computing and Distributed Data Centers</h2><p dir="ltr">Edge computing is another way of achieving Green Cloud, as it reduces long-distance data transfer requirements by processing data closer to its source. This approach of handling computation locally lowers bandwidth usage and the power required for network operations as well as reducing energy costs.&nbsp;</p><p dir="ltr">Similarly, distributing data across geographically diverse data centers further helps reduce energy intensity by utilizing regional power resources more effectively. These data centers are strategically placed to take advantage of local renewable energy sources and climate conditions for efficient cooling.</p><h2 dir="ltr">Virtualization and Containerization</h2><p dir="ltr">Virtualization and containerization are critical technologies to achieve Green Cloud. Container-based architectures contribute to energy savings by allowing multiple applications to share the same operating system while running in isolated environments with minimal overhead. Containerization allows workloads to run on fewer servers, which reduces the energy required for powering and cooling data centers. Virtualization and containerization help cloud providers achieve significant energy savings by optimizing the utility of available hardware while maintaining flexibility and scalability.</p><h1 dir="ltr">Engineering Challenges in Implementing Green Cloud Practices</h1><h2 dir="ltr">Balancing Performance and Sustainability</h2><p dir="ltr">Implementing Green Cloud practices presents engineering challenges in balancing performance and sustainability. For instance, one significant challenge is the trade-off between energy savings and cloud performance, as energy-saving measures, such as reducing power to idle servers, can sometimes introduce latency or lower performance.&nbsp;</p><p dir="ltr">Exploring new technologies and architectures that can improve energy efficiency without sacrificing performance is imperative to tackle this challenge. In this regard, adopting hybrid architectures that combine traditional and cloud-native solutions can provide the flexibility needed to achieve both sustainability and high performance.</p><h2 dir="ltr">Cost vs. Environmental Benefit</h2><p dir="ltr">The economic challenges of adopting Green Cloud solutions can be significant, especially for smaller organizations, since the upfront costs of transitioning to energy-efficient hardware, renewable energy sources, and optimized cloud infrastructure can be substantial. However, long-term cost savings from reduced energy consumption often outweigh these initial investments.</p><p dir="ltr">Quantifying the return on investment (ROI) for Green Cloud investments, however, adds another layer of complexity. Organizations must balance immediate financial implications against long-term environmental benefits by developing metrics that accurately assess energy savings, reduced operational costs, and potential regulatory incentives. Businesses can utilize cost-benefit analyses and lifecycle assessments to better understand the financial and environmental impact of their investments.</p><h1 dir="ltr">Real-World Examples and Best Practices</h1><h2 dir="ltr">Case Studies of Green Cloud Implementation</h2><p dir="ltr">Major cloud providers are leading the charge toward sustainable cloud computing. For instance, in 2023, for the seventh year in a row, Google matched 100% of its electricity usage with renewable energy. Moreover, Google is aiming for 24/7 carbon-free energy across all its global operations by 2030. 6&nbsp;</p><p dir="ltr">Similarly, AWS achieved to match 100% of their consumed electricity with renewable energy in 2023, and they are aiming to achieve their target of net-zero carbon by 2040.&nbsp;7&nbsp;Microsoft has also made a significant commitment by targeting carbon negativity by 2030.&nbsp;4</p><p dir="ltr">Smaller companies are also aiming to achieve sustainable cloud operations. For instance, Ecosia is a search engine that donates 80% of its profits to reforestation projects worldwide.8&nbsp;Similarly, GreenGeeks is a web hosting company that claims to be 300% green. They use renewable energy credits to offset their carbon footprint and support wind energy projects.&nbsp;9</p><h1 dir="ltr">The Future of the Green Cloud</h1><h2 dir="ltr">Trends in Sustainable Cloud Computing</h2><p dir="ltr">AI and machine learning can contribute a lot to the future of Green Cloud for energy optimization. With AI and machine learning, data centers will be able to analyze vast amounts of operational data, identify inefficiencies, and dynamically adjust resource allocation to minimize energy consumption while maintaining performance.&nbsp;</p><p dir="ltr">Another crucial trend for the future of Green Cloud is the rise of zero-carbon data centers, which aim to eliminate greenhouse gas emissions from their operations. Top companies are aiming to adopt climate-positive operations and go beyond carbon neutrality towards carbon-negative by actively contributing to carbon removal and climate restoration.</p><h1 dir="ltr">Conclusion</h1><p dir="ltr">The Green Cloud is an important step toward addressing the environmental impact of cloud computing. Cloud providers can significantly reduce their carbon footprints via energy-efficient hardware, renewable energy sources, and carbon reduction techniques.&nbsp;</p><p dir="ltr">The Green Cloud is not just a trend but a necessary transformation in how we approach digital infrastructure. In this regard, engineers have a responsibility and a critical role in advancing these technologies and ensuring that cloud computing continues to grow in an environmentally responsible manner. The future of computing can become both powerful and environmentally friendly if Green Clooud practices are adopted widely.</p><h1 dir="ltr">References</h1><ol><li dir="ltr"><p dir="ltr">Cloud Computing Market Size &amp; Share Analysis - Growth Trends &amp; Forecasts (2024 - 2029) [Online]. Mordor Intelligence. Available at: <a href="https://www.mordorintelligence.com/industry-reports/cloud-computing-market">https://www.mordorintelligence.com/industry-reports/cloud-computing-market</a> (Accessed on September 24, 2024)</p></li><li dir="ltr"><p dir="ltr">Bharany, S., et al,. (2022). A systematic survey on energy-efficient techniques in sustainable cloud computing. Sustainability. <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/su14106256">https://doi.org/10.3390/su14106256</a></p></li><li dir="ltr"><p dir="ltr">Radu, L. D. (2017). Green cloud computing: A literature survey. Symmetry. <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/sym9120295">https://doi.org/10.3390/sym9120295</a></p></li><li dir="ltr"><p dir="ltr">Who has the greenest cloud? The most sustainable cloud tech in 2024 [Online]. Hive. Available at: <a href="https://www.hivenet.com/post/who-has-the-greenest-cloud-the-most-sustainable-cloud-tech-in-2024">https://www.hivenet.com/post/who-has-the-greenest-cloud-the-most-sustainable-cloud-tech-in-2024</a> (Accessed on September 24, 2024)</p></li><li dir="ltr"><p dir="ltr">Cloud Carbon Emissions Measurement and Analysis Tool [Online]. Cloud Carbon Footprint. Available at: &nbsp;<a href="https://www.cloudcarbonfootprint.org/">https://www.cloudcarbonfootprint.org/</a> (Accessed on September 24, 2024)</p></li><li dir="ltr"><p dir="ltr">24/7 Carbon-Free Energy by 2030. [Online] Google Data Centers. Available at: <a href="https://www.google.com/about/datacenters/cleanenergy/">https://www.google.com/about/datacenters/cleanenergy/</a> (Accessed on September 24, 2024)</p></li><li dir="ltr"><p dir="ltr">AWS enables sustainability solutions. [Online]. AWS. Amazon. Available at: &nbsp;<a href="https://aws.amazon.com/sustainability/">https://aws.amazon.com/sustainability/</a> (Accessed on September 24, 2024)</p></li><li dir="ltr"><p dir="ltr">Ellie Hutchin (2017) Ecosia. The Search Engine That's Saving The World! [Online] The Great Projects. Available at: &nbsp;<a href="https://www.thegreatprojects.com/blog/the-search-engine-that-s-saving-the-world">https://www.thegreatprojects.com/blog/the-search-engine-that-s-saving-the-world</a> (Accessed on September 24, 2024)</p></li><li dir="ltr"><p dir="ltr">Web Hosting that's fast, secure &amp; eco-friendly. [Online] Green Geeks. Available at: &nbsp;<a href="https://www.greengeeks.com/">https://www.greengeeks.com/</a> (Accessed on September 24, 2024)</p></li></ol>

The aim of this article is to explain the Green Cloud, its underlying principles, and how engineers and organizations can implement sustainable practices in cloud operations.

Understanding the Green Cloud: An overview of sustainable cloud computing

An overview of Flip chip technology, its inception, manufacturing process, advancements and performance optimization techniques.

Flip Chip Technology: Advanced Semiconductor Packaging for Next-Generation Electronics

Photoresist, a light-sensitive material, is essential in photolithography for transferring intricate circuit patterns onto semiconductor wafers. This article explores positive vs. negative photoresists, detailing their chemical mechanisms, processing parameters, and performance traits.

Positive vs. Negative Photoresist: A Comprehensive Guide to Photolithography in Semiconductor Fabrication

An in-depth review of PCB potting, its applications, materials, technologies, and the AI-powered advancement in potting techniques and material engineering.

PCB Potting: Fortifying Electronics Against Extreme Elements

<p dir="ltr" id="isPasted">Semiconductors play a pivotal role in shaping our everyday experiences. From the vehicles we drive to the devices we use, semiconductors are omnipresent, enabling functionalities in computers, smartphones, and various industrial automation technologies.&nbsp;</p><p id="isPasted">Nexperia's Hamburg plant has been at the forefront of semiconductor development for a century, contributing to nearly ten percent of the global semiconductor component production. To celebrate this 100-year milestone, we delve into the captivating history of this institution and the engineers and workers that have enabled its success.&nbsp;</p><h2>The Nexperia beginning</h2><p>The journey started in 1924 when the Valvo radio tube factory was established in Hamburg. Three years after being acquired by the Dutch electronics group Philips, the factory initially focused on manufacturing vacuum tubes, which were essential for the emerging radio technology at the time. The world of electronics was on the verge of a revolution with the invention of the transistor by William Shockley's team at Bell Labs (now Nokia Bell Labs) in New Jersey in 1947. This invention ushered in a new era by offering numerous advantages over traditional vacuum tubes, including smaller sizes, lower energy consumption, and greater reliability.</p><p>The team in Hamburg quickly recognized the potential of the new technology, and the site became a center for semiconductor production. The company began developing diodes and transistors as early as 1953. In 1957, large-scale production of transistors began in Hamburg. This innovative work laid the foundation for Hamburg's legacy in transistor technology and established the city as one of the leading locations for the development and manufacture of semiconductor components. The components developed and produced here found their way into a wide range of applications, from consumer electronics to industrial control systems, helping to transform entire industries.</p><p>In 1969, the first component in the pioneering SOT23 plastic housing was produced in Hamburg. This surface-mountable housing allowed for space-saving on the circuit board compared to the through-hole housings available until then. However, it took time for this technology to gain widespread success. It was only during the boom in consumer electronics in the 1980s and early 1990s that SMT (surface mount technology) really began to catch on. The SOT23 quickly became the standard for a three-pin SMT housing due to its compact size, reliability, and flexibility. Even today, it is widely used across all industries as it can accommodate a variety of electronic components such as diodes, bipolar transistors, field effect transistors (FETs), and ESD protection devices.</p><h2>Rise to top semiconductor manufacturer</h2><p>In 1989, the plant produced 2.8 billion semiconductor elements. By 2009, the number had increased to 45 billion, and in 2006, the Philips semiconductor division became NXP Semiconductors. Today, Nexperia, which separated from NXP in 2017 and has been functioning as an independent company, manufactures 100 billion components per year. These components are utilized in a wide range of electronic devices.</p><p>Nexperia's success in Hamburg is attributed to the continuous improvement in production efficiency. The production of semiconductors, specifically the manufacturing of wafers, is a highly intricate process that demands precision and reliability. Wafers are thin slices of semiconductor material, typically silicon used as the foundation for making microelectronic components. These wafers are cut or sawn from a single crystalline semiconductor block and then polished to prepare them for the microchip manufacturing process. Through ongoing innovation and optimization, Nexperia has significantly boosted production capacity while upholding top-notch quality standards. Today, the Hamburg factory stands as the world's largest production facility for small signal diodes and transistors, contributing to approximately a quarter of global production.</p><h3>Focus on energy efficiency and innovation</h3><p>In addition, continuously increasing the energy efficiency of components is a central aspect of product development at Nexperia. This plays a key role in improving everyday products, such as increasing the range of electric cars. In addition to the diodes and transistors manufactured in Hamburg, Nexperia also offers wide-band-gap semiconductor products made of silicon carbide (SiC) and gallium nitride (GaN), which are known for their energy efficiency.</p><p>Since the spin-off from NXP in 2017, Nexperia has invested approximately 260 million US dollars in the Hamburg site. This investment has not only increased the workforce from 950 to around 1,600 but has also modernized the technological infrastructure. The investments were focused on expanding research and development in Hamburg and increasing the capacity of the wafer fab. The majority of this growth occurred in 2019 after Nexperia became part of Wingtech Technology Co. Ltd., a consumer electronics manufacturer listed on the Shanghai stock exchange. In 2023, a design center in Munich was added to complement the development activities of Nexperia Germany GmbH.</p><p><span class="fr-img-caption fr-fic fr-dib" style="width: 832px;"><span class="fr-img-wrap"><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1730198863076-News+and+events+header.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"><span class="fr-inner">Nexperia has a broad product GaN product range that &nbsp;targets automotive, 5G and datacenter applications. Credit: Nexperia</span></span></span></p><h2>Recognizing successes and staying the course</h2><p>The 100th anniversary of Nexperia in Hamburg signifies a significant milestone in the company's history. It is a testament to the power of innovation and human ingenuity and an opportunity to honor the people behind this success story. From the glassblowers of the early days to the engineers and scientists of today, their contributions have made Nexperia a global leader in the semiconductor industry.</p><p>The <a href="https://www.nexperia.com/about/company-timeline">100th anniversary of Nexperia</a> in Hamburg signifies a significant milestone in the company's history. It is a testament to the power of innovation and human ingenuity and an opportunity to honor the people behind this success story. From the glassblowers of the early days to the engineers and scientists of today, their contributions have made Nexperia a global leader in the semiconductor industry.</p>

Semiconductors play a pivotal role in shaping our everyday experiences. From the vehicles we drive to the devices we use, semiconductors are omnipresent, enabling functionalities in computers, smartphones, and various industrial automation technologies. 

100 years of cutting edge engineering at Nexperia Hamburg plant

<section id="isPasted"><p>Modern computing infrastructures in data centers or distributed computing systems contribute significantly to global electricity use. The increasing demand for electricity in these systems poses problems, as the need for electricity could potentially exceed the world's energy production in the near future.&nbsp;</p><p>To combat this problem, the&nbsp;<a href="https://new.nsf.gov/news/nsf-awards-42-4m-new-grants-support-future-semiconductors" rel="noopener" target="_blank">National Science Foundation has awarded Future of Semiconductor grants totaling $42.4 million to further research on semiconductors.</a> Part of this effort will be led by Dr. Yuxuan 'Cosmi' Lin, assistant professor in the Department of Materials Science and Engineering at Texas A&amp;M University. His team has received $1.8 million to support a collaborative research project on new designs of interconnect technologies to reduce their power consumption and boost the overall performance of microchips.</p><p>Microchips contain interconnects — layers of metal conductors with nanoscale to microscale dimensions that connect different electronic devices in a computer chip. About 20-40% of power in microchips is consumed by its interconnects. Copper is the standard material for interconnects due to its abundance, offering low costs and good electrical conductivity. &nbsp;</p><p>However, when its dimensions are reduced below 10 nanometers, its resistivity increases dramatically, increasing power consumption and heat generation.&nbsp;</p><p>"First, electrons in ultrathin copper nanowires can no longer move freely due to structure and property changes," said Lin. "Second, the surface of copper nanowires must be encapsulated with an insulating layer to make the structure more stable, but this further reduces charge transport."&nbsp;</p></section><blockquote><p>This project offers potential pathways for integrating these new interconnect technologies with silicon integrated circuit chips, paving the way for upscaling such as an emerging industrial development and manufacturing technology.</p><p><cite>- Dr. Yuxuan 'Cosmi' Lin</cite></p></blockquote><section><p>Throughout this three-year project, the team will develop a new way to synthesize copper nanowires and design effective encapsulation layers based on two-dimensional materials. These break the paradigm, limiting current interconnect technology and enabling next-generation high-performance and energy-efficient computer chips.</p><p>"This project offers potential pathways for integrating these new interconnect technologies with silicon integrated circuit chips, paving the way for upscaling such as an emerging industrial development and manufacturing technology," said Lin.&nbsp;</p><p>The proposed research, education, and workforce development efforts will be conducted among five interdisciplinary research groups across three universities, including Texas A&amp;M, University of Texas at Austin, and Purdue University. New research initiatives and semiconductor workforce development activities will be coordinated across the three campuses. This will enhance the technological leadership and broader societal impact of Texas A&amp;M in microelectronics, which is one of the critical technologies of national interest as outlined by the CHIPS &amp; Science Act and the Texas CHIPS Act.</p><p>"New domain knowledge will be established at the forefront of the electronic materials area in materials science and engineering throughout this project," said Lin. "Additionally, the project seeks to engage students at all levels, providing training in physics, materials science, and nanoelectronics to prepare students for industry. "&nbsp;</p><p>Besides Dr. Lin’s group, contributors to the research include the four research groups: Dr. Yuanyue Liu's group and Dr. Jamie Warner's group at UT Austin, as well as Dr. Zhihong Chen's group and Dr. Sumeet Gupta's group at Purdue University.&nbsp;</p></section>

A research team at Texas A&M has received a $1.8M National Science Foundation Future of Semiconductor grant to develop new energy-efficient interconnect technologies for microchips.

New Energy-efficient Interconnect Technologies for Microchips

<p id="isPasted">In the fast-paced world of electronics and innovation, having access to the right tools is essential for designers and engineers looking to bring their concepts to life quickly and efficiently. Development kits are a key resource in this process, offering pre-built solutions that allow for faster prototyping and testing of new ideas. Mouser Electronics, a leading global distributor, is renowned for providing one of the most extensive ranges of off-the-shelf development kits, ensuring that designers can access the tools they need when they need them.</p><p>In this article, Mouser’s Director of Technical Content for EMEA, Mark Patrick, shares his expert insights by presenting his ‘Top 5 Picks’ from the latest development kits available. These kits have been carefully selected based on their innovative features, ease of use, and the potential they offer to accelerate the design process. Whether you're working on AI applications, IoT solutions, or embedded systems, these development kits can give your project the jumpstart it needs.</p><h2><strong>Long-range connectivity</strong></h2><p><em>Digi XBee® XR 868&nbsp;</em></p><p>This development kit includes the Digi XBee 868 RF MHz module with a U.FL antenna connector, antennas, and a development board. It supports long-range connectivity applications in Europe, operating between 863MHz and 870MHz. The module facilitates point-to-point and mesh networking with a line-of-sight range exceeding 14 kilometers, ideal for the agriculture and energy sectors. The device employs intelligent interference management using Listen Before Talk and Adaptive Frequency Agility, reducing interference by scanning frequencies and shifting channels seamlessly.</p><p><a href="https://www.mouser.com/new/embedded-solutions/engineering-tools/digi-xbee-xr-868-kit/n-8mwysZ1npagf">XBee® XR 868 Development Kit - Digi | Mouser</a></p><p><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1729582453944-digi.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"></p><h2><strong>Curiouser and curiouser</strong></h2><p><em>Microchip WBZ450 EV22L65A</em></p><p>Microchip’s WBZ450 Curiosity board is an efficient, modular development platform that supports rapid prototyping and demonstrates the features, capabilities, and interfaces of Microchip’s WBZ450PE BLUETOOTH® Low Energy and Zigbee® RF module. The EV22L65A board offers integrated programming/debugging features using the PICkit™ Onboard 4 (PKOB4) debugger interface. A Micro-USB cable is required to power up and program the board.</p><p><a href="https://www.mouser.com/new/embedded-solutions/engineering-tools/microchip-ev22l65a-board/n-8mwysZ2puw22">WBZ450 Curiosity Board (EV22L65A) - Microchip Technology | Mouser</a></p><p><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1729582723571-micro.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"></p><h2><strong>Arm-based MCU&nbsp;</strong></h2><p><em>STMicro STM32H7S78-DK Discovery kit</em></p><p>STMicroelectronics’ STM32H7S78-DK Discovery kit demonstrates and develops applications for the Arm® Cortex®-M7 core-based STM32H7S7L8H6H microcontroller. The kit comes with various hardware features, including USB Type-C™, Octo-SPI flash memory, Hexadeca-SPI PSRAM devices, audio codec, digital microphones, ADC, user button, and flexible extension connectors. These connectors facilitate easy wireless connectivity, analog applications, and sensor expansion.</p><p><a href="https://www.mouser.com/new/embedded-solutions/engineering-tools/stm-stm32h7s78-dk-kit/n-8mwysZ2cjsva">STM32H7S78-DK Discovery Kit - STMicro | Mouser</a></p><p><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1729582777405-st.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"></p><h2><strong>Rugged and reliable embedded wireless</strong></h2><p><em>Advantech WLNNA&nbsp;</em></p><p>Advantech’s WLNNA Series evaluation kit is a platform for evaluating, testing and developing Airborne Enterprise Device Server Modules. The Advantech WLNNA kit offers size, cost, power consumption, and performance advantages over other wireless solutions. Ideal for rugged and reliable applications needing an embedded IEEE 802.11a/b/g/n compliant wireless engine, the kit includes a WLNNA Series Evaluation Board with connectors and headers providing access to all module interfaces.</p><p><a href="https://www.mouser.com/new/embedded-solutions/engineering-tools/advantech-wlnna-kit/n-8mwysZ27k4mu">WLNNA Series Evaluation Kit - Advantech | Mouser</a></p><p><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1729582820389-brief+2.png" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"></p><h2><strong>IoT control</strong></h2><p><em>M5Stack M5NanoC6 board</em></p><p>This board features an ESP32-C6FH4 MCU supporting Wi-Fi 6, Zigbee®, and an infrared emitter for controlling infrared IoT devices. The device's ceramic antenna ensures stable wireless communication. Programmable RGB beads enable personalized visual effects. The Grove interface allows flexible expansion of various M5 devices, which are customizable for different communication protocols.</p><p><a href="https://www.mouser.com/new/embedded-solutions/engineering-tools/m5stack-m5nanoc6-board/n-8mwysZ2sl8dv" id="isPasted">M5NanoC6 Board - M5Stack | Mouser</a></p><p><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1729582849615-m5.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"></p>

In this article,  Mouser’s Director, Technical Content, EMEA, Mark Patrick, presents his ‘Top 5 Pick’ of recently-released dev kits.

The development tools you need

<p id="isPasted">The future of technology has an age-old problem: rust. When iron-containing metal reacts with oxygen and moisture, the resulting corrosion greatly impedes the longevity and use of parts in the automotive industry. While it’s not called “rust” in the semiconductor industry, oxidation is especially problematic in two-dimensional (2D) semiconductor materials, which control the flow of electricity in electronic devices, because any corrosion can render the atomic-thin material useless. Now, a team of academic and enterprise researchers has developed a synthesis process to produce a “rust-resistant” coating with additional properties ideal for creating faster, more durable electronics. &nbsp;&nbsp;</p><p><span class="fr-img-caption fr-fic fr-dib" style="width: 832px;"><span class="fr-img-wrap"><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1727135296605-mrs_bulletin_cover_mos2.gif" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"><span class="fr-inner">These materials are made from molybdenum disulfide, a two-dimensional semiconductor, grown on a sapphire surface. The triangular shapes seen are aligned because of a special process called epitaxy, where the material follows the pattern of the surface it's grown on. Insulating layers, like amorphous boron nitride, are added during the process of making these ultra-thin materials, which are used to build next-generation electronic devices. Credit: J.A. Robinson Research Group/Penn State. All Rights Reserved.</span></span></span></p><p>The team, co-led by researchers at Penn State, published their work in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-48429-4?afsrc=1&bfsrc=7" rel="noreferrer noopener" target="_blank">Nature Communications</a>.&nbsp;</p><p>2D materials are ultra-thin, just one or a few atoms thick. They hold promise for advanced semiconductors because their thinness provides a shorter and more direct path for electrons to move quickly and with less resistance through the material. This in turn allows for faster and more efficient electronic performance. &nbsp;</p><p>Semiconductors are materials that conduct electricity under some conditions but not others, making them ideal for controlling electrical currents in electronic devices. Electronic devices, the “brains” of computer chips, are made from these materials. &nbsp;</p><p>"One of the biggest issues that we see in 2D semiconductor research these days is the fact that the materials oxidize quickly,” said Joshua Robinson, professor of materials science and engineering and co-corresponding author of the work. “You need to ensure their long-term reliability because these are going into transistors or sensors that are supposed to last years. Right now, these materials don't last more than a week out in the open." &nbsp;</p><p>Traditional methods to protect these materials from rusting involve oxide-based coatings, but these processes often use water, which ironically can accelerate the very oxidation they aim to prevent. The team’s approach to this problem was to seek a coating material and method that could avoid the use of water entirely. Enter amorphous boron nitride (a-BN). &nbsp;</p><p>"We wanted to get away from using water in the process so we started thinking about what sort of 2D materials we can make that do not use water in its processing, and amorphous boron nitride is one of those," Robinson said. &nbsp;</p><p>A non-crystalline form of boron nitride, a-BN is known for its high thermal stability and electrical insulation properties, making it ideal for use in semiconductors to insulate components, prevent unwanted electrical currents and improve device performance, Robinson said.</p><blockquote><p id="isPasted">“One of the biggest issues that we see in 2D semiconductor research these days is the fact that the materials oxidize quickly.”</p><p><strong>Joshua Robinson, professor of materials science and engineering</strong></p></blockquote><p id="isPasted">He explained that a-BN a has high dielectric strength, a measurement indicating the material’s ability to withstand high electric fields without breaking down, a critical factor for reliable electronic performance. &nbsp;</p><p>“The high dielectric strength demonstrated by a-BN is comparable to the best dielectrics available, and we don’t need water to make it,” Robinson said. "What we demonstrated in the paper was that including amorphous boron nitride yields improved device performance compared to conventional dielectrics alone."&nbsp;</p><p>While the coating helped produce a better 2D transistor, getting the coating on the 2D materials proved a challenge, according to Robinson. Two-dimensional materials lack dangling bonds, which are unpaired electrons on the surface of a material that react or bond with other atoms. A standard single-step process that uses higher temperatures to coat the materials resulted in uneven and discontinuous coatings, well below the quality electronics need to function properly. &nbsp;</p><p>To evenly coat 2D materials with the a-BN, the team developed a new two-step atomic layer deposition method, which involves first depositing a thin low-temperature a-BN “seed layer” before heating up the chamber to typical deposition temperatures between 250 and 300 degrees Celsius. This not only allowed the researchers to produce an even a-BN coating over the 2D semiconductors but also led to a 30% to 100% improvement — depending on the transistor design — in transistor performance compared to devices not utilizing the a-BN.&nbsp;</p><p>"When you sandwich 2D semiconductors between the amorphous boron nitride, even though it’s amorphous, you end up with a smoother electronic road, so to speak, that would enable improved electronics,” Robinson said. “The electrons can go faster through the 2D material than they could if they were between other dielectric materials.”&nbsp;</p><p>Robinson noted that even with its high dielectric strength, researchers have only scratched the surface of a-BN's potential as a dielectric material for semiconductor devices. &nbsp;</p><p>“We have room for improvement even though it’s already outperforming other dielectric materials,” Robinson said. "The primary thing that we're trying to do right now is improve the overall quality of the material and then integrate it into some complex structures you would see in future electronics.”&nbsp;</p><p>Along with Robinson, other authors of the study from Penn State include Cindy Chen, graduate student in materials science and engineering; Riccardo Torsi, graduate research assistant in materials science and engineering; Ke Wang, associate research professor in the Materials Research Institute; Bangzhi Liu, associate research professor in the Materials Research Institute. Other co-authors include co-corresponding author Yu-Chuan Lin, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University in Taiwan; Zhihong Chen and Joerg Appenzeller, Purdue University; Jessica Kachian, Intel Corporation; and Gilber B. Rayner Jr., The Kurt J. Lesker Company.&nbsp;</p><p>The Semiconductor Research Corporation, through a program sponsored by National Institute of Standards and Technology, the Center for Emergent Functional Matter Science of National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, the Ministry of Education of Taiwan and the U.S. National Science Foundation supported this research. &nbsp;</p>

A team of academic and enterprise researchers has developed a synthesis process to produce a “rust-resistant” coating with additional properties ideal for creating faster, more durable electronics.   

Water-free manufacturing approach could help advance 2D electronics integration

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