What is Distributed Control System (DCS)?

Introduction

Distributed Control Systems (DCS) are advanced control systems used in industrial automation and process control. They play a crucial role in managing complex processes, ensuring safety, and optimizing efficiency. DCSs are used in several industrial facilities like pharmaceutical manufacturing, oil refineries, chemical plants, and petrochemical plants.

DCS allows prompt monitoring and control of various plant processes by distributing control tasks across multiple controllers. DCS provides a more flexible and scalable solution compared to traditional centralized control systems. This enables industries to adapt to changing requirements and maintain high levels of performance and reliability. Without further a due let’s discuss the components that make up a DCS system.

Components of a DCS

A Distributed Control System consists of several key components that work together to monitor and control an industrial process plant. These components include controllers, input/output (I/O) modules, human-machine interfaces (HMI), and communication networks.

Controllers

Controllers are responsible for executing control algorithms and managing the overall system. The control center receives input data from sensors, process the data according to predefined control logic, and sends output signals to actuators to control the process variables. Control units can be classified into different types based on their functionality and architecture, such as single-loop, multi-loop, and advanced process controllers.

Single-loop controllers: These are the simplest form of controllers, designed to control a single process variable. They use a single input and output channel and are typically used for basic control tasks, such as flow rate, temperature, or pressure control. An example of a single-loop controller is a proportional-integral-derivative or  PID controller, which adjusts the output based on the error between the desired setpoint and the measured process variable.

Multi-loop controllers: This type of controllers are capable of controlling multiple process variables simultaneously. They have several input and output channels and can handle complex control tasks. Multi-loop controllers often use advanced control elements and algorithms, such as model predictive control (MPC) or adaptive control, to optimize the performance of the system.

Advanced process controllers: These controllers are designed for even more complex control functions and can handle multiple inputs and outputs, as well as nonlinear and time-varying processes. These controllers have subsystems and use sophisticated algorithms, such as artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) techniques, to optimize the control performance and adapt to changing process conditions. Examples of advanced process controllers include neural networks and fuzzy logic controllers.

In a DCS, controllers are often distributed across the plant, with each dedicated controller responsible for a specific area or process. This distributed architecture allows for greater flexibility, scalability, and fault tolerance, as the failure of a single controller does not shut down the entire system.

Input/Output (I/O) Modules

Input/output (I/O) modules are the interface between the control room and the field devices, such as sensors, actuators, and other process equipment. I/O modules are responsible for collecting data from sensors, converting it into digital signals, and transmitting it to the controllers for processing. Similarly, they receive control signals from the controllers and convert them into appropriate output signals to drive actuators and other devices.

There are various types of I/O modules, each designed for specific applications and signal types. Some common types include:

Analog Input Modules: These modules handle continuous signals from sensors, such as temperature, pressure, and flow measurements. They convert the analog signals into digital values using analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) with a specific resolution, typically ranging from 12 to 24 bits.

Analog Output Modules: Analog output modules are used to control devices like control valves, motors, and pumps by generating continuous control signals. They convert digital control signals from the controller into analog signals using digital-to-analog converters (DACs).

 Analog IO modules of the device for monitoring and control

Digital Input Modules: Digital input modules are designed to handle discrete signals from devices like switches, relays, and binary sensors. They detect the presence or absence of a signal, representing it as a binary value (0 or 1).

Digital Output Modules: These modules control discrete devices, such as solenoid valves, contactors, and indicator lights, by generating discrete output signals. They convert digital control signals from the controller into appropriate on/off signals.

I/O modules can be further classified based on their communication interfaces, such as serial, parallel, or Fieldbus protocols. Some common fieldbus protocols used in DCS include arc.net, HART, FOUNDATION Fieldbus, and PROFIBUS. These protocols enable efficient communication between I/O modules, controllers, and other system components, ensuring reliable data transmission and real-time control.

In addition to the basic types of I/O modules, there are specialized modules designed for specific applications, such as temperature input modules, which handle signals from thermocouples and resistance temperature detectors (RTDs). These modules often include additional features, such as cold junction compensation and linearization, to ensure accurate temperature measurements.

The selection of appropriate I/O modules depends on various factors, including the type of field devices, signal characteristics, communication system requirements, and environmental conditions. By choosing the right I/O modules, industries can ensure accurate data acquisition, efficient control, and reliable operation of their DCS.

Human-Machine Interface (HMI)

A Human-Machine Interface (HMI) or operating system provides a graphical interface for operators to monitor and control industrial processes. HMIs enable operators to visualize process data, interact with DCS control algorithms, and perform various tasks, such as adjusting setpoints, acknowledging alarms, and initiating manual control actions. Let’s indulge in the details of all the functionalities of HMIs.

Graphical Representation of Process Data: HMIs display process data in a user-friendly format, using graphical elements such as trends, bar graphs, and gauges. This allows operators to quickly understand the current state of the process and identify any deviations from the desired operating conditions.

Control and Monitoring Functions: HMIs provide various control and monitoring functions, enabling operators to interact with the control system. These functions include adjusting setpoints, initiating manual control actions, and acknowledging alarms. By providing a centralized interface for control and monitoring, HMIs improve the efficiency and effectiveness of plant operations.

Alarm Management: Alarm management is a critical aspect of HMI design, ensuring that operators receive timely and relevant information about abnormal process conditions. HMIs display alarms in a prioritized manner, allowing operators to quickly identify and address the most critical issues. Advanced HMI systems also provide features such as alarm filtering, grouping, and suppression, helping operators to manage large numbers of alarms effectively.

Historical Data Analysis: HMIs often include data historian functionality, enabling operators to analyze historical process data and identify trends, patterns, and anomalies. This can be useful for troubleshooting, process optimization, and decision-making.

Security and Access Control: Modern HMIs incorporate security features in the management systems, such as user authentication and access control, to protect the control system from unauthorized access and potential cyber threats. By implementing role-based access control, HMIs ensure that operators can only perform actions within their designated authority.

HMIs can be implemented on various platforms, ranging from dedicated hardware panels to software applications running on standard computers or mobile devices. The choice of an HMI platform depends on factors such as the complexity of the process, the required functionality, and the environmental conditions. 

Suggested Reading: An in-depth guide to Human-Machine Interaction

Communication Networks

Communication networks enable the exchange of data and control signals between various system components, such as controllers, (I/O) modules, and (HMI). These networks ensure reliable and real-time communication, which is essential for maintaining efficient and safe operation of industrial processes.

There are several types of communication networks and protocols used in DCS, each with its own characteristics and advantages. Some common communication protocols include:

HART (Highway Addressable Remote Transducer): HART is a widely used communication protocol for process automation, combining analog and digital communication over a single 4-20 mA current loop. This allows HART devices to transmit both process variable data and additional information, such as device diagnostics and configuration data. HART is compatible with existing analog instrumentation, making it a popular choice for advancements in legacy control systems.

FOUNDATION Fieldbus: FOUNDATION Fieldbus is a digital, bi-directional communication protocol designed specifically for process automation. It provides high-speed communication, deterministic data transmission, and advanced features such as device diagnostics, multivariable measuring capabilities, control-in-the-field, and network redundancy. FOUNDATION Fieldbus enables the integration of multiple devices and functions on a single network, reducing wiring complexity and improving system flexibility.

PROFIBUS (Process Field Bus): PROFIBUS is a widely used industrial communication protocol, supporting both process automation (PROFIBUS PA) and factory automation (PROFIBUS DP) applications. PROFIBUS provides high flexibility because of its modular structure, high-speed, and quick data exchange, and supports a wide range of devices, such as sensors, actuators, controllers, and HMIs. It also offers advanced features, such as network diagnostics, device configuration, and redundancy.

The PROFIBUS DB9 connector, the best solution for high transmission speeds

Industrial Ethernet: Industrial Ethernet is a variant of the standard Ethernet protocol, adapted for use in industrial environments. It offers high-speed communication, real-time data transmission, and robustness against electromagnetic interference and harsh environmental conditions. Industrial Ethernet can be used with various industrial protocols, such as EtherNet/IP, PROFINET, and Modbus TCP/IP, providing a flexible and scalable solution for DCS communication.

When designing a communication network for a DCS, several factors need to be considered, such as the required data transmission speed, network topology, and environmental conditions. The choice of communication protocol and network architecture can significantly impact the performance, reliability, and scalability of the DCS. 

DCS Architecture

The architecture of a Distributed Control System (DCS) plays a crucial role in determining its performance, scalability, and reliability.

In a distributed control system, control tasks are divided among multiple controllers, each responsible for a specific area or process within the plant. These controllers communicate with each other and share data through a communication network, allowing them to coordinate their actions and maintain overall system performance. Distributed architectures offer several advantages over centralized architectures, including:

• Scalability: Distributed control systems can be easily expanded by adding new controllers and I/O modules as needed. This allows industries to adapt to changing requirements and accommodate growth without significant disruption to existing operations.
• Fault Tolerance: In a distributed architecture, the failure of a single controller does not affect the entire system, as other controllers can continue to operate independently. This improves the overall reliability and availability of the control system.
• Performance: By distributing control tasks across multiple controllers, a DCS can achieve better performance and faster response times. This is particularly important for large-scale and complex processes, where a single controller may struggle to handle the computational load.
• Flexibility: Distributed architectures provide greater flexibility in terms of system design and configuration. This allows industries to tailor their control systems to meet specific requirements and optimize performance.

These benefits make distributed control systems a preferred choice for modern industrial automation and process control applications.

Redundancy and Fault Tolerance

Redundancy and fault tolerance warrant the reliable operation of industrial processes in the event of component failures or other system disturbances. By incorporating redundant components and fault-tolerant strategies, DCS can maintain control and minimize the impact of failures on process performance and safety.

Hardware Redundancy:

Hardware redundancy involves the use of duplicate components, such as controllers, input/output (I/O) modules, and communication networks, to provide backup in case of failure. In a redundant configuration, the primary component performs the control tasks, while the secondary component remains in standby mode, ready to take over if the primary component fails. Hardware redundancy can be implemented at various levels, including:

• Controller Redundancy: In a redundant controller configuration, two or more controllers operate in parallel, both running the same control algorithms and sharing the same I/O data. If one controller fails, the other controllers can continue to control the process without interruption.

• I/O Module Redundancy: Redundant I/O modules can be used to improve the reliability and fault tolerance of the data acquisition system. In this configuration, two or more I/O modules are connected to the same field devices, providing multiple data paths between the sensors and controllers. If one I/O module fails, the other module can continue to provide data to the controller, ensuring the continuous operation of the control system.

• Communication Network Redundancy: Redundant communication networks use multiple communication paths or protocols to ensure continuous data transmission between system components such as parallel cables, dual-ring topologies, or mesh networks. If a communication link fails, the system can automatically switch to an alternate path, maintaining real-time control and data exchange.

• Power Supply Redundancy: Power supply redundancy is another important aspect of fault tolerance in a DCS. By providing redundant power supplies, the system can continue to operate even if one power supply fails. This can be achieved by using multiple power supplies connected in parallel, with each supply capable of providing the required power to the system.

Software Fault Tolerance: 

Software fault tolerance involves the use of advanced algorithms and control strategies to detect and mitigate the impact of failures on system performance. Some common software fault-tolerant techniques include:

• Error Detection and Correction: Error detection and correction algorithms can identify and correct data transmission errors, ensuring the integrity of control signals and process data.

• Control Algorithm Robustness: Robust control algorithms can adapt to changes in process conditions and component performance. Hence, they maintain stable and efficient control even in the presence of disturbances or failures.

• Self-Diagnostics and Health Monitoring: Self-diagnostic and health monitoring functions can detect component failures or degradation This enables proactive maintenance and minimizes the impact of failures on system performance.

DCS Applications

Distributed Control Systems (DCS) are widely used in various industries to monitor and control complex processes. They provide a flexible and scalable solution for managing large-scale operations Some of the key applications of DCS include process industries, power generation, and water and wastewater treatment.

Process Industries

Process industries involve the continuous production, transformation, or transportation of materials, such as chemicals, oil and gas, pharmaceuticals, and food and beverages. These industries often require precise control of process variables, such as temperature, pressure, flow, and level, to maintain product quality and safety. DCS plays a crucial role in managing these processes by providing real-time monitoring, advanced control algorithms, and efficient data management.

Chemical Industry: In the chemical industry, DCS is used to control processes, like mixing, reaction, separation, and purification. These processes often involve hazardous materials and require strict safety measures, making the reliability and fault tolerance of DCS essential. DCS enables the chemical industry to optimize production, reduce waste, and minimize energy consumption.

Oil and Gas Industry: The oil and gas industry relies on DCS for the control and monitoring of upstream, midstream, and downstream operations. In upstream operations, DCS is used to manage drilling, production, and wellhead control. In midstream operations, it is used for pipeline monitoring, transportation, and storage. In downstream operations, DCS is employed in refining, processing, and distribution. 

Pharmaceutical Industry: The pharmaceutical industry uses DCS to mainly control drug synthesis, formulation, and packaging. These processes require strict control of process variables, such as temperature, humidity, and pressure, to ensure product quality and compliance with regulatory requirements. 

Power Generation

In power generation, Distributed Control Systems (DCS) are used to manage and optimize the operation of power plants, including fossil fuel, nuclear, and renewable energy sources. DCS guarantees electricity generation is safe and efficient while minimizing environmental impact and operational costs.

Fossil Fuel Power Plants: In fossil fuel power plants, such as coal, natural gas, and oil-fired plants, DCS controls fuel handling, combustion, steam generation, and turbine operation. By controlling variables, such as temperature, pressure, and flow,  DCS helps power plant operators to optimize fuel consumption, reduce maintenance costs, and improve overall plant performance.

Nuclear Power Plants: In nuclear power plants, DCS is used to manage the complex processes involved in nuclear fission, heat transfer, and electricity generation. DCS provides real-time monitoring and control of critical process variables, such as reactor temperature, pressure, and neutron flux, DCS also plays a crucial role in managing safety systems, such as emergency cooling and containment, as well as radiation monitoring and protection.

lock control panel of nuclear power plant operates on a backup power supply during an accident simulation

Renewable Energy Power Plants: DCS is also employed in renewable energy power plants, such as hydroelectric, solar, and wind power plants. 

• In hydroelectric plants, DCS is used to control water flow, turbine operation, and generator output. 

• In solar power plants, DCS manages the operation of solar collectors, inverters, and grid integration.

•  In wind power plants, DCS is responsible for controlling wind turbine operation, including pitch and yaw control, as well as monitoring the performance of individual turbines and the entire wind farm. 

DCS helps renewable energy power plants to maximize energy production, optimize equipment performance, and reduce operational costs.

Water and Wastewater Treatment

Water and wastewater treatment is another critical application of Distributed Control Systems (DCS). These systems are responsible for ensuring the quality and safety of water supplies, as well as the efficient treatment and disposal of wastewater.

Water Treatment: In water treatment plants, DCS is used to control various processes, such as coagulation, sedimentation, filtration, and disinfection. These processes require precise control of process variables, such as flow rates, chemical dosages, and pressure, to ensure the quality and safety of treated water. 

Some specific examples of DCS applications in water treatment include:

• Monitoring and controlling the addition of chemicals, such as coagulants and disinfectants, to ensure proper dosing and effective treatment.

• Managing the operation of pumps, valves, and other equipment to maintain optimal flow rates and pressure throughout the treatment process.

• Monitoring water quality parameters, such as turbidity, pH, and residual chlorine, to ensure compliance with water quality standards.

Wastewater Treatment: In wastewater treatment plants, DCS is used to manage processes such as primary treatment, secondary treatment, and sludge handling. These processes involve the removal of contaminants, such as solids, organic matter, and nutrients, from wastewater to meet discharge standards and protect the environment. 

Some specific examples of DCS applications in wastewater treatment include:

• Controlling the operation of screens, grit removal systems, and sedimentation tanks in primary treatment to remove solids and other large particles from wastewater.

• Managing the aeration and mixing processes in secondary treatment, which involve the use of biological processes to remove organic matter and nutrients from wastewater.

• Monitoring and controlling the operation of sludge handling equipment, such as thickeners, digesters, and dewatering systems, to ensure efficient treatment and disposal of waste products.

DCS Integration with Other Systems

Integrating a Distributed Control System (DCS) with other systems is essential for achieving a comprehensive and efficient control solution. By connecting DCS with other systems, such as Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA), Manufacturing Execution Systems (MES), and Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems, industries can enhance their monitoring, control, and decision-making capabilities.

Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)

Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems are used for monitoring and controlling large-scale industrial processes, often covering vast geographical areas. While DCS is primarily focused on controlling and managing processes within a single facility, SCADA systems provide a higher level of supervision and control across multiple facilities or remote sites.

Integrating DCS with SCADA systems offers several benefits:

Centralized Monitoring and Control: By integrating DCS with SCADA, operators can monitor and control processes across multiple facilities from a central location. This enables more efficient management of resources, faster response to process disturbances, and improved decision-making.

Data Aggregation and Analysis: SCADA systems can collect and aggregate data from multiple DCS installations, providing a comprehensive view of the entire operation. This data can be used for performance analysis, trend identification, and optimization of processes across the organization.

Alarm Management and Event Notification: SCADA systems can provide centralized alarm management and event notification, enabling operators to quickly identify and respond to process disturbances or equipment failures. This can help minimize downtime and improve overall system reliability.

Remote Access and Control: Integrating DCS with SCADA systems allows for remote access and control of processes, enabling operators to monitor and manage operations from anywhere with an internet connection. This can be particularly useful for managing remote or geographically dispersed facilities.

 Manufacturing Execution Systems (MES)

Manufacturing Execution Systems (MES) are software solutions designed to manage and optimize production processes in manufacturing industries. MES provides real-time visibility, control, and data management capabilities. By integrating with Distributed Control Systems (DCS) and other automation systems, MES enables manufacturers to improve efficiency, reduce waste, and enhance product quality. Here are some noteworthy benefits of integrating MES with DCS.

Enhanced Visibility and Control: Integrating MES with DCS allows for real-time data exchange between the shop floor and the plant-level systems. This integration enables better visibility into production operations, including process parameters, equipment status, and material usage. Operators and managers gain better control over manufacturing processes, enabling timely decision-making and response to deviations or issues.

Improved Production Efficiency: MES-DCS integration enables seamless coordination between production planning, scheduling, and execution. Real-time data from DCS feeds into MES, allowing for accurate tracking of production progress, cycle times, and equipment utilization. This integration facilitates optimized production scheduling, reduced downtime, and improved overall equipment efficiency (OEE).

Quality Management and Compliance: By integrating MES with DCS, manufacturers can implement advanced quality management systems. Real-time data from DCS, such as process parameters and quality measurements, can be linked with MES to enable real-time quality control and monitoring. This integration helps detect quality deviations early, reduces the risk of non-compliance, and enables traceability throughout the production process.

Inventory and Material Management: Integrating MES with DCS provides better control over inventory and material usage. Real-time data from DCS on material consumption, inventory levels, and replenishment needs can be fed into MES, enabling accurate inventory tracking and management. This integration helps optimize material handling, reduce waste, and minimize stockouts or excess inventory.

Data Analysis and Decision Support: MES-DCS integration allows for the collection and analysis of extensive operational data. By leveraging advanced analytics and reporting capabilities, manufacturers can gain insights into process performance, identify bottlenecks, and make data-driven decisions to improve productivity, quality, and overall operational efficiency.

Streamlined Workflows and Automation: Integration between MES and DCS supports streamlined workflows and automation of manual tasks. Data exchange between the systems enables automated information flow, reducing manual data entry errors and improving operational efficiency. For example, MES can automatically trigger material orders based on DCS data, eliminating the need for manual intervention.

DCS vs. Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs)

Distributed Control Systems (DCS) and Programmable Logic Controllers(PLCs) are both widely used in industrial automation and control applications. While they share some similarities, they also have distinct differences in terms of architecture, functionality, and application areas. Understanding the key differences between DCS and PLCs can help in selecting the most suitable control system for a specific application.

 Programmable Logic Controller(PLC) being used in water treatment system control

Architecture: DCS is designed for large-scale, complex processes that require a high level of integration and coordination between multiple controllers, I/O modules, and communication networks. DCS architecture is inherently distributed, with control tasks shared among multiple controllers and communication networks. In contrast, PLCs are typically used for smaller-scale applications, with a single controller responsible for executing the control logic and managing I/O devices. PLCs can be networked together for more complex applications, but their architecture is generally more centralized than that of a DCS.

Functionality: DCS provides advanced control capabilities, such as model predictive control, adaptive control, and multivariable control, which are essential for managing complex processes with multiple interacting variables. DCS also offers sophisticated data management and visualization tools, enabling operators to monitor and analyze process performance in real time. PLCs, on the other hand, are primarily focused on executing discrete control logic, such as ladder logic or function block diagrams, which are well-suited for sequential control tasks and simple feedback control loops.

Application Areas: DCS is commonly used in process industries, such as chemical, oil and gas, pharmaceutical, and food and beverage, where the control of continuous processes is critical for maintaining product quality, safety, and efficiency. DCS is also employed in power generation and water treatment applications, where large-scale, distributed control is required. PLCs are typically used in discrete manufacturing industries, such as automotive, electronics, and packaging, where the control of individual machines and assembly lines is the primary focus. PLCs are also used in building automation, material handling, and other applications that require simple, reliable control of discrete devices and processes.

Scalability and Integration: DCS is designed for scalability and seamless integration of new controllers, I/O modules, and communication networks, making it well-suited for large-scale, complex applications that require a high degree of coordination and data exchange between system components. PLCs can be networked together and integrated with other automation devices, such as Human-Machine Interfaces (HMIs) and Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems, but their scalability and integration capabilities are generally more limited than those of a DCS.

Suggested Reading: What is a PLC?

In summary, DCS and PLCs serve different purposes in industrial automation and control applications. DCS is well-suited for large-scale, complex processes that require advanced control capabilities, data management, and visualization tools, while PLCs are ideal for smaller-scale applications that require simple, reliable control of discrete devices and processes. 

Conclusion

Distributed Control Systems (DCS) play a crucial role in industrial automation and control applications, providing advanced control capabilities, real-time monitoring, and data management for complex processes. Integrating DCS with other systems, such as SCADA, MES, and ERP, can further enhance monitoring, control, and decision-making capabilities, leading to improved operational efficiency and reliability. Understanding the key features, applications, and integration possibilities of DCS is essential for selecting the most suitable control system for a specific application and achieving optimal performance.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1-What is the main difference between DCS and PLC?

A: The main difference between DCS and PLC lies in their architecture and application areas. DCS is designed for large-scale, complex processes that require a high level of integration and coordination between multiple controllers, I/O modules, and communication networks. PLCs are typically used for smaller-scale applications, with a single controller responsible for executing the control logic and managing I/O devices.

2- Can DCS and PLC be used together in a single application?

A: Yes, DCS and PLC can be used together in a single application, with DCS providing overall process control and management, while PLCs handle specific control tasks or discrete devices. This hybrid approach can offer the best of both worlds, combining the advanced control capabilities of DCS with the simplicity and reliability of PLCs.

3- How does DCS integrate with SCADA systems?

A: DCS can be integrated with SCADA systems to provide centralized monitoring and control of processes across multiple facilities or remote sites. This integration enables more efficient management of resources, faster response to process disturbances, and improved decision-making. SCADA systems can also aggregate data from multiple DCS installations for performance analysis and optimization.

4- What are some key benefits of using DCS in industrial applications?

A: Some key benefits of using DCS in industrial applications include improved process control, real-time monitoring, data management, and integration with other systems. DCS enables industries to optimize their operations, reduce energy consumption, and comply with environmental regulations, leading to improved operational efficiency and reliability.

References:

[1] Hulewicz, A., Krawiecki, Z., & Dziarski, K. (2019). Distributed control system DCS using a PLC controller. In ITM Web of Conferences (Vol. 28, p. 01041). EDP Sciences.

https://www.itm-conferences.org/articles/itmconf/pdf/2019/05/itmconf_zkwe2019_01041.pdf

[2] Stouffer, K., Falco, J., & Kent, K. A. (2008). Guide to Industrial Control Systems (ICS) Security: Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) Systems, Distributed Control Systems (DCS), and Other Control System Configurations Such as Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC): Recommendations of the National Institute of Standards and Technology. US Department of Commerce, National Institute of Standards and Technology.

[3] Kjellsson, J., Vallestad, A. E., Steigmann, R., & Dzung, D. (2009). Integration of a wireless I/O interface for PROFIBUS and PROFINET for factory automation. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, 56(10), 4279-4287.

tie.2009.201709820160717-18884-dyk9t9-libre.pdf