PCB Material: A Comprehensive Guide to Understanding and Choosing the Right Materials

Introduction

Printed circuit boards (PCBs) are the backbone of modern electronics, providing the foundation for connecting and supporting electronic components. In today’s world of cutting-edge technology, ever-increasing signal speed, and miniaturisation, choosing the right PCB material is incredibly important. PCB materials play a crucial role in determining the performance, reliability, and durability of these boards. These are essential in determining the electrical and mechanical properties of a printed circuit board. PCB materials can influence signal integrity, thermal performance, and board durability. By understanding the different types of materials and their properties, you can make informed decisions when selecting materials for your PCB design and manufacturing process. 

Basics of PCB Materials

What is a PCB Material?

A PCB material is the substance used to construct the various layers of a printed circuit board. These materials provide the foundation for the electrical and mechanical properties of the board, ensuring proper functionality and durability. PCB materials can be broadly classified into four categories: substrate materials, conductive materials, dielectric materials, and solder mask materials.

Substrate materials form the core of the PCB, providing mechanical support and rigidity. The most common substrate material is FR-4, a composite material made of woven fibreglass cloth and epoxy resin. [1] Other substrate materials include polyimide, ceramic, and metal core, each with unique properties and applications.

Single-sided PCBs with exposed FR4 substrate; Link: Fanypcb

Conductive materials are used to create the electrical connections between components on a PCB. They form the pathways (traces), pads, vias, and other components in PCB, facilitating the flow of electricity. Copper is the most widely used conductive material due to its excellent electrical conductivity and ease of processing. Copper traces are typically etched onto the substrate to form the desired circuit patterns. Other conductive materials include Gold, Silver, Tin, Indium, etc.  

Blue-printed circuit board with gold plating

Dielectric materials are insulating materials that separate conductive layers in a multilayer PCB. They prevent electrical signals from interfering with one another and help maintain signal integrity. These materials also influence signal propagation speeds and characteristics. Dielectric materials can also be found in the substrate, as in the case of FR-4, where the epoxy resin acts as a dielectric.

IC covered by a black epoxy blob and embedded in green PCB 

Solder mask materials are applied to the surface of the PCB to protect the copper traces from oxidation, corrosion, and short circuits. Solder mask also helps to prevent solder bridges during the assembly process. Common solder mask materials include liquid photo imageable (LPI) and dry film solder masks.

Liquid Photo-imageable Solder Mask on PCB

Recommended Reading: Components of a PCB: A Comprehensive Guide

Functions of PCB Materials

PCB materials serve various functions in a printed circuit board, each contributing to the overall performance and reliability of the board. Some key functions of PCB materials include providing mechanical support, ensuring electrical performance, managing heat dissipation, and offering environmental protection.

Mechanical support: The substrate material forms the core of the PCB, providing mechanical support and rigidity to the board. This support is crucial for maintaining the structural integrity of the board during assembly, handling, and operation. The choice of substrate material can significantly impact the board's mechanical properties, such as stiffness, flexibility, and resistance to mechanical stress.

Electrical performance: Conductive materials, such as copper, create electrical connections between components on a PCB. The choice of conductive material and its thickness can influence the board's electrical performance, including signal integrity, resistance, and capacitance. Dielectric materials also play a role in electrical performance by separating conductive layers and preventing signal interference.

Heat dissipation: Efficient heat management is essential for maintaining the performance and reliability of electronic components on a PCB. The choice of PCB material can significantly impact the board's thermal performance. Materials with high thermal conductivity, such as metal core materials, can help dissipate heat more effectively, reducing the risk of component failure due to overheating.

Environmental protection: PCB materials must withstand various environmental conditions, such as temperature fluctuations, humidity, and chemical exposure. Solder mask materials protect the copper traces from oxidation, corrosion, and short circuits, while the substrate material's properties can influence the board's resistance to moisture absorption and thermal expansion.

By understanding the functions of PCB materials and their impact on the board's properties, designers can make informed decisions when choosing materials for their projects.

Recommended Reading: PCBs Thickness: Understanding Thickness Variations

Types of PCB Materials

FR-4

Printed circuit board with FR4 laminate (top) and PTFE laminate (bottom); Link: epectec

The abbreviation FR-4 stands for Flame Retardant 4. It is the most widely used PCB material in the electronics industry. FR-4 is a composite material of woven fibreglass cloth impregnated with epoxy resin. The combination of fibreglass and epoxy balances mechanical strength, electrical insulation, and thermal stability, making FR-4 suitable for various applications.

One of the primary advantages of using FR-4 is its cost-effectiveness. FR-4 is relatively inexpensive and readily available compared to other PCB materials, making it an attractive option for many designers. Additionally, FR-4 is compatible with most standard PCB manufacturing processes, further contributing to its popularity.

The electrical properties of FR-4 are suitable for many applications, with a typical dielectric constant (Dk) of around 4.2 to 4.8 and a dissipation factor (Df) of approximately 0.015 to 0.025  at 1 GHz. These values can vary depending on the specific formulation of the FR-4 material and the manufacturing process used. [2]

FR-4 exhibits good thermal properties, with a glass transition temperature (Tg) typically ranging from 130°C to 180°C. This temperature range is sufficient for most standard electronic applications. However, alternative materials with higher Tg values may be more suitable for high-temperature applications or designs with significant thermal cycling.

One of the limitations of FR-4 is its relatively low thermal conductivity, typically around 0.3 W/m·K. This low thermal conductivity can make it challenging to dissipate heat effectively in high-power or high-density designs. In such cases, alternative materials with higher thermal conductivity, such as metal core PCBs, may be more appropriate.

FR-4 is a versatile and cost-effective PCB material suitable for various applications. However, designers should carefully consider the specific requirements of their projects and evaluate whether FR-4's properties align with those needs.

Recommended Reading: FR4: Understanding the Material and Its Applications in PCB Design

High-Temperature Materials

High-temperature PCB materials are designed to withstand elevated temperatures and thermal cycling, making them suitable for applications where standard materials like FR-4 may not perform adequately. Some popular high-temperature materials include polyimide and ceramic-based substrates.

Polymide material serving as a PCB substrate; Link: Raypcb

Polyimide is a high-performance polymer material known for its excellent thermal stability, mechanical strength, and chemical resistance. It is commonly used in high-temperature applications, such as aerospace, automotive, and industrial electronics. Polyimide PCBs have a glass transition temperature (Tg) of around 280°C to 350°C, significantly higher than that of FR-4. [3] This higher Tg allows polyimide boards to maintain their mechanical and electrical properties at elevated temperatures.

Polyimide also exhibits a low coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE), which helps reduce the risk of delamination and warping during thermal cycling. Its dielectric constant (Dk) is typically around 3.2 to 3.6, and its dissipation factor (Df) is approximately 0.002 to 0.003 at 1 GHz, making it suitable for high-frequency applications.

However, polyimide PCBs are more expensive than FR-4 boards due to the higher cost of the material and the more complex manufacturing processes required. Polyimide can be more challenging to process, requiring specialised equipment, drilling, etching, and lamination techniques.

Ceramic-based substrate, Alumina (Al2O3), used in PCB; Link: andwinpcb

Ceramic-based substrates are another option for high-temperature applications. Ceramic materials, such as alumina (Al2O3) and aluminium nitride (AlN), offer excellent thermal conductivity, high-temperature stability, and low CTE. These properties make ceramic substrates ideal for applications involving high power densities or extreme temperature environments, such as power electronics, LED lighting, and military electronics.

Ceramic substrates have high thermal conductivity, with alumina typically around 24 W/m·K and aluminium nitride around 170 W/m·K. This high thermal conductivity allows for efficient heat dissipation, reducing the risk of component failure due to overheating. Ceramic materials also exhibit low dielectric constants, with alumina around 7.8 to 11 and aluminium nitride around 8.5 to 9.0, making them suitable for high-frequency applications. [4]

However, ceramic substrates are more expensive and brittle than other PCB materials, making them less suitable for applications requiring mechanical flexibility or cost-sensitive designs. Additionally, processing ceramic materials can be more challenging, requiring specialised manufacturing techniques and equipment.

When selecting high-temperature materials for a PCB, it is essential to consider the specific requirements of the application, such as temperature range, thermal cycling, and electrical performance. 

Flexible Materials

Flexible PCB materials are designed to provide mechanical flexibility while maintaining electrical performance. These materials are ideal for applications where traditional rigid PCBs, such as wearable electronics, medical devices, and aerospace systems, may not be suitable. Polyimide is the most common flexible material used in PCBs, although other materials, such as polyester (PET) and liquid crystal polymer (LCP) are also used.

Liquid crystal polymer printed circuit boards; Link: optiprint

Polyester (PET) is a flexible material used in PCBs, offering a lower-cost alternative to polyimide. PET has a lower glass transition temperature (Tg) of around 80°C, making it suitable for applications with lower temperature requirements. Its dielectric constant (Dk) is typically around 3.0 to 3.2, and its dissipation factor (Df) is approximately 0.01 to 0.02 at 1 GHz. While PET is not as thermally stable or chemically resistant as polyimide, it can be a more cost-effective option for certain applications.

Liquid crystal polymer (LCP) is a high-performance flexible material with excellent electrical properties, making it suitable for high-frequency and high-speed applications. LCP has a low dielectric constant (Dk) of around 2.9 and a low dissipation factor (Df) of 0.002 at 1 GHz. [5] Its high glass transition temperature (Tg) of around 280°C and low coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) make it suitable for high-temperature applications and provide excellent dimensional stability during thermal cycling.

By understanding the properties and limitations of these materials, designers can make informed decisions and choose the most suitable material for their projects.

Metal Core Materials

Metal core PCB materials are designed to provide enhanced thermal performance compared to traditional FR-4 and other substrate materials. These materials are ideal for applications that require efficient heat dissipation, such as power electronics, LED lighting, and automotive systems. The most common metal core material used in PCBs is aluminium, although copper and other metals can also be used.

Metal core materials used in PCB; Link: Cadence

Aluminum core PCBs consist of a layer of aluminium sandwiched between dielectric material and copper layers. The aluminium core provides excellent thermal conductivity, typically ranging from 1 W/m·K to 3 W/m·K, depending on the dielectric material used. This high thermal conductivity allows for efficient heat dissipation, reducing the risk of component failure due to overheating.

In addition to its thermal properties, aluminium is lightweight, mechanically robust, and relatively inexpensive compared to other metal core materials. These characteristics make aluminium core PCBs attractive for many applications requiring enhanced thermal performance.

Copper core PCBs offer even higher thermal conductivity than aluminium core PCBs, with copper's thermal conductivity typically around 400 W/m·K. [6] This increased thermal performance makes copper core PCBs suitable for applications with extremely high power densities or demanding thermal requirements. However, copper-core PCBs are generally more expensive and heavier than aluminium-core PCBs, making them less suitable for cost-sensitive or weight-sensitive applications.

When selecting metal core materials for a PCB, it is essential to consider the application's specific requirements, such as thermal performance, weight, and cost. 

Material Properties and Performance

Dielectric Constant

The dielectric constant (Dk) is a critical property of PCB materials that influences the board's electrical performance. It is a dimensionless value that represents the relative permittivity of a material compared to a vacuum. The dielectric constant affects the speed at which electrical signals propagate through the PCB and the impedance of transmission lines, making it an essential factor to consider in high-speed and high-frequency designs.

A lower dielectric constant generally results in faster signal propagation and reduced signal loss, making materials with low Dk values desirable for high-speed and high-frequency applications. For example, FR-4 has a typical dielectric constant of around 4.2 to 4.8. In contrast, polyimide has a Dk of approximately 3.2 to 3.6, and liquid crystal polymer (LCP) has a Dk of around 2.9. PTFE has an even lower dielectric constant than FR-4, which means it can transmit signals at higher frequencies with less attenuation. These differences in dielectric constant can significantly impact the performance of the PCB in high-speed and high-frequency designs.

When choosing PCB materials, the dielectric constant (Dk) is vital for optimal electrical performance. The appropriate Dk values ensure proper signal speed, signal integrity, and impedance matching requirements. Since Dk can change with frequency, temperature, and humidity, designers must account for these variations to select the best material for their needs.

Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity is a critical property of PCB materials that determines their ability to dissipate heat generated by electronic components during operation. It is measured in watts per meter-kelvin (W/m·K) and represents the rate at which heat can be transferred through a material. Efficient heat management is essential for maintaining the performance and reliability of electronic components on a PCB, making thermal conductivity an essential factor to consider when selecting materials.

Materials with high thermal conductivity can effectively dissipate heat, reducing the risk of component failure due to overheating. For example, metal core materials such as aluminium and copper have significantly higher thermal conductivities than traditional FR-4 substrates. Aluminum has a thermal conductivity of around 1 W/m·K to 3 W/m·K, depending on the specific dielectric material used, while copper has a thermal conductivity of approximately 400 W/m·K.

In contrast, FR-4 has a relatively low thermal conductivity of around 0.3 W/m·K, making it challenging to dissipate heat effectively in high-power or high-density designs. In such cases, alternative materials with higher thermal conductivity, such as metal core PCBs or high-temperature materials like polyimide, may be more appropriate.

When choosing PCB materials, thermal conductivity is crucial for heat management. The right conductivity is key for handling power density, operating temperature, and cooling requirements. Since factors like temperature, humidity, and other materials can affect it, designers should consider these aspects while selecting materials for their projects. 

Glass Transition Temperature

The glass transition temperature (Tg) is a critical property of PCB materials that influences their thermal stability and mechanical performance. It is the temperature at which a material transitions from a rigid, glassy state to a more flexible, rubbery state. This transition can have significant implications for the performance and durability of a PCB, as it affects the material's resistance to thermal expansion, warping, and delamination.

Materials with a higher glass transition temperature can withstand higher temperatures without losing their mechanical stability; Link: Wevolver

A higher glass transition temperature indicates that a material can maintain its mechanical and electrical properties at elevated temperatures. For example, FR-4 has a typical glass transition temperature range of 130°C to 180°C, sufficient for most standard electronic applications. [7] However, materials with higher Tg values, such as polyimide or ceramic-based substrates, may be more suitable for high-temperature applications or designs with significant thermal cycling.

Polyimide has a glass transition temperature of around 280°C to 350°C, making it suitable for high-temperature applications and providing excellent thermal expansion and warping resistance. Ceramic-based substrates, such as alumina and aluminium nitride, have even higher Tg values, offering exceptional thermal stability and low coefficients of thermal expansion.

When choosing PCB materials, consider the glass transition temperature (Tg) and its impact on the board’s thermal performance and mechanical stability. Designers must select materials with the right Tg values, factoring in operating temperatures, thermal cycling, and stress. The specific formulation and manufacturing process can influence the Tg, so designers should factor these elements into their decisions. 

Moisture Absorption

Moisture absorption is an important property of PCB materials, as it can affect the board's electrical performance, mechanical stability, and long-term reliability. Moisture absorbed by the PCB material can lead to swelling, warping, and delamination, increased electrical leakage and reduced dielectric strength. 

Moisture absorption is typically expressed as a percentage, representing the amount of moisture a material can absorb relative to its dry weight. Materials with lower moisture absorption rates are generally more resistant to the negative effects of moisture exposure. For example, FR-4 has a moisture absorption rate of around 0.1% to 0.2%, which is relatively low compared to other materials like polyimide, which has a moisture absorption rate of approximately 2.5% to 3.5%.

When selecting a PCB material, it is essential to consider the moisture absorption rate and its impact on the board's performance and reliability. Designers should choose materials with appropriate moisture absorption rates for their specific applications, considering the operating environment, humidity levels, and long-term reliability requirements.

Designers can also implement strategies to minimize moisture absorption during the PCB manufacturing and assembly process. These strategies may include using conformal coatings, encapsulants, or potting compounds to protect the PCB from moisture exposure and controlling the storage and handling conditions of the PCB materials and finished boards to minimize exposure to humidity.

Choosing the Right PCB Material

Close-up of the green kit PCB laminate

Application Requirements

When selecting a PCB material, it is essential to consider the specific requirements of the application, as different materials offer varying properties that can impact the performance and reliability of the board. Some key factors to consider when choosing a PCB material based on application requirements include electrical performance, thermal performance, mechanical properties, and environmental conditions.

Electrical performance: The dielectric constant (Dk) and dissipation factor (Df) of a material can significantly impact the signal integrity and impedance of a PCB, especially in high-speed and high-frequency designs. Designers should choose materials with appropriate Dk and Df values for their specific applications, considering signal speed, signal integrity, and impedance matching requirements. The loss tangent of the PCB materials will need to be considered when designing high-frequency circuits.

Thermal performance: The thermal conductivity and glass transition temperature (Tg) of a material can influence the board's ability to dissipate heat and maintain its mechanical and electrical properties at elevated temperatures. Designers should choose materials with appropriate thermal properties for their specific applications, considering power density, operating temperature, and cooling requirements. PCB stackup determines the number of layers in the PCB and the thickness of each layer. The copper traces and thickness of the layers in mils must be considered while determining laminate material, i.e. CEM for PCB. 

Mechanical properties: The mechanical properties of a PCB material, such as stiffness, flexibility, and resistance to mechanical stress, can impact the board's durability and reliability. Designers should choose materials with appropriate mechanical properties for their specific applications, considering factors such as mechanical stress, vibration, and shock.

Environmental conditions: The moisture absorption rate and resistance to environmental factors, such as temperature fluctuations, humidity, and exposure to chemicals can impact the long-term reliability of a PCB. Designers should choose materials with appropriate environmental resistance for their specific applications, taking care of the operating environment, humidity levels, and long-term reliability requirements.

By meticulously evaluating their application's specialized needs, designers can select the best PCB material, ensuring optimal performance and reliability.

Recommended Reading: PCB Layers: Everything You Need to Know

Cost Considerations

When selecting a PCB material, it is important to consider the cost implications of different materials, as this can impact the overall budget and feasibility of a project. The cost of PCB materials can vary significantly depending on material type, properties, and manufacturing complexity.

Material type: Some materials, such as FR-4, are relatively inexpensive and widely available, making them an attractive option for many designers. However, other materials, such as polyimide, ceramic-based substrates, or metal core materials, can be more expensive due to their specialized properties and higher production costs.

Material properties: The specific properties of a material, such as its dielectric constant, thermal conductivity, and glass transition temperature, can influence its cost. Materials with more specialized properties, such as high-temperature stability or low dielectric constants, may be more expensive than materials with more standard properties.

Manufacturing complexity: The complexity of the manufacturing process required to produce a PCB can also impact the cost of the material. Some materials, such as FR-4, are compatible with most standard PCB manufacturing processes, making them relatively inexpensive. However, other materials, such as polyimide or ceramic-based substrates, may require specialized manufacturing techniques and equipment, increasing production costs. [8]

When choosing a PCB material, designers must balance cost with performance. Selecting a material that fits the application's needs without overspending is crucial. By evaluating the cost and benefits of different materials, designers can achieve optimal PCB performance at a minimized cost.

Recommended Reading: PCBA Cost and Complexity Design Factors You Should Know

Manufacturing Constraints

Manufacturing constraints can significantly impact the choice of PCB material, as some materials may be more challenging to process or require specialized equipment and techniques. When selecting a PCB material, it is essential to consider the manufacturing constraints associated with the material and ensure that the chosen material is compatible with the available manufacturing processes and equipment.

Drilling and etching: Some materials, such as polyimide or ceramic-based substrates, can be more challenging to drill and etch than standard FR-4 materials. These materials may require specialized drilling equipment, such as laser drills or diamond-coated drill bits, to achieve precise see-through hole sizes and tolerances. Similarly, etching complex circuit patterns on these materials may require advanced etching techniques or chemicals, which can increase manufacturing complexity and cost.

Lamination: The lamination process, which involves bonding multiple layers of material together to form a multilayer PCB, can also be affected by the choice of PCB material. Some materials, such as high-temperature substrates or metal core materials, may require specialized lamination processes or equipment to ensure proper bonding, interconnect and alignment of the layers. This can increase manufacturing complexity and cost and potentially impact the yield and reliability of the finished boards.

Surface finish: The choice of PCB material can also impact the options for surface finishes, which are applied to the copper traces to protect them from oxidation, corrosion, and short circuits. Some materials may be incompatible with certain surface finishes or may require specialized surface finish processes to ensure proper adhesion and performance. PCB silkscreen is applied to the top of a PCB, to identify surface mount components, test points, and other markings. Copper foil is used to create the electrical traces that connect the components on the PCB.

When choosing a PCB material, designers must ensure it aligns with manufacturing capabilities and constraints. Collaborating with PCB manufacturers to comprehend specific limitations helps make decisions about material selection based on different factors.

Recommended Reading: PCB Manufacturing Process: Everything You Need to Know

Emerging Trends in PCB Materials

Environmentally Friendly Materials

As environmental concerns become increasingly important, the electronics industry is exploring the use of environmentally friendly PCB materials to reduce the environmental impact of electronic devices. These materials aim to minimize the use of hazardous substances, reduce waste, and improve recyclability while maintaining or enhancing the performance and reliability of traditional PCB materials.

One example of an environmentally friendly PCB material is halogen-free FR-4. Traditional FR-4 materials contain halogens, such as bromine and chlorine, which can produce toxic and corrosive gases when burned. Halogen-free FR-4 materials eliminate these halogens, reducing the environmental impact and potential health hazards associated with their use. [9] Halogen-free FR-4 materials typically have electrical and mechanical properties similar to traditional FR-4 materials, making them a viable alternative for many applications.

Another emerging trend in environmentally friendly PCB materials is bio-based and biodegradable materials. These materials are derived from renewable resources, such as plant-based materials or bio-based polymers, and can be designed to biodegrade under specific environmental conditions. Rigid-flex PCBs are made of rigid and flexible materials, such as FR-4 and polyimide, making PCBs strong and durable. While these materials are still in the early stages of development, they can significantly reduce the environmental impact of PCBs by reducing the reliance on non-renewable resources and improving end-of-life disposal options.

Adopting eco-friendly PCB materials offers both benefits and challenges for the electronics sector. While they lessen environmental impact, they might pose manufacturing hurdles. When choosing such materials, designers and manufacturers must weigh environmental advantages against potential performance or production issues.

Advanced Materials for High-Speed Applications

As electronic devices evolve and demand for high-speed and high-frequency performance increases, advanced PCB assembly and materials are being developed to meet these requirements. These materials offer improved electrical properties, such as lower dielectric constants and dissipation factors, and enhanced thermal and mechanical performance, making them suitable for high-speed and high-frequency applications.

Low-loss and high-speed laminates are an example of an advanced material for high-speed applications. These materials are designed to minimize signal loss and maintain signal integrity at high frequencies. They typically have lower dielectric constants (Dk) and dissipation factors (Df) than traditional FR-4 materials, resulting in improved signal propagation and reduced signal attenuation. Examples of low-loss, high-speed laminates include materials like Rodgers RO4000 series, Isola Tachyon, and Megtron 6. [10]

Another emerging trend in advanced materials for high-speed applications is the development of materials with improved thermal performance. These materials can efficiently dissipate heat generated by high-speed components, reducing the risk of component failure due to overheating. Examples of materials with enhanced thermal performance include metal core PCBs, such as aluminium and copper core materials, as well as high-temperature materials like polyimide and ceramic-based substrates.

When selecting advanced materials for high-speed applications, it is essential to consider the specific requirements of the application, such as signal speed, signal integrity, thermal performance, and mechanical properties. Designers should carefully evaluate the properties and performance of these advanced materials and choose the most suitable material for their projects, ensuring optimal performance and reliability in high-speed and high-frequency designs.

Conclusion

Selecting the right PCB material is critical to designing and manufacturing printed circuit boards. By understanding the various types of materials, their properties, and their impact on performance and reliability, designers can make informed decisions and choose the most suitable material for their specific applications. Factors such as electrical performance, thermal performance, mechanical properties, environmental conditions, cost, and manufacturing constraints should all be considered when selecting a PCB material. As the electronics industry continues to evolve and demand for high-speed and high-frequency performance increases, advanced materials, and environmentally friendly options are emerging to meet these requirements and reduce the environmental impact of electronic devices.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What is the most common PCB material?

A. FR-4 is the most common PCB material, as it offers a good balance of mechanical strength, electrical insulation, and thermal stability at a relatively low cost.

2. What are some high-temperature PCB materials?

A. Polyimide and ceramic-based substrates are examples of high-temperature PCB materials, offering excellent thermal stability and resistance to thermal expansion.

3. What are some flexible PCB materials?

A. Polyimide, polyester (PET), and liquid crystal polymer (LCP) are examples of flexible PCB materials, providing mechanical flexibility while maintaining electrical performance.

4. How does the dielectric constant affect PCB performance?

A. The dielectric constant (Dk) influences the speed at which electrical signals propagate through the PCB and the impedance of transmission lines, making it an essential factor to consider in high-speed and high-frequency designs.

5. What factors should be considered when selecting a PCB material?

A. Factors to consider when selecting a PCB material include electrical performance, thermal performance, mechanical properties, environmental conditions, cost, and manufacturing constraints.

References

[1] Protoexpress. Why FR-4 material in PCB fabrication? [Cited 2023 September 24] Available at: Link

[2] Nextpcb. Guide to FR-4 printed circuit board material. [Cited 2023 September 24] Available at: Link

[3] Nanotech-Elektronik. Materials for Printed Circuit Boards. [Cited 2023 September 24] Available at: Link

[4] Makeitfrom. Alumina vs. Aluminum Nitride. [Cited 2023 September 24] Available at: Link

[5] ScienceDirect. Progress of liquid crystal polyester (LCP) for 5G application. [Cited 2023 September 24] Available at: Link

[6] Raypcb. Metal PCB Materials Differences: Aluminum Vs. Copper Core Vs. Iron Based. [Cited 2023 September 24] Available at: Link

[7] Cadence. Fr4 Maximum Temperature and Thermal Dissipation. [Cited 2023 September 24] Available at: Link

[8] Wevolver. The Ultimate Guide to PCB Materials: Choosing the Best Fit for Your Electronics Project. [Cited 2023 September 24] Available at: Link

[9] Viasion. Halogen-free PCB. [Cited 2023 September 24] Available at: Link

[10] Hemeixinpcb. Megtron 4, Megtron 6 and Rogers RO4350B High Speed, Low Loss Materials' Instruction. [Cited 2023 September 24] Available at: Link